The new 2009 Audi A4

Stretching nearly five inches overall, more than two inches wider, and a six-inch-longer, the 2009 A4 is closing in on A6 dimensions (the wheelbase is 1.3 inches shorter). Being the largest in its class, nearly three inches longer than the C-Class and seven longer than the 3 Series sedan. With that increase in length and width and a minor reduction in height (making lower by less than 0.1 inch), the new model has a intergrated, sportier stance and holds the road with a new sense of confidence and enthusiasm.

Its new underpinnings are shared with the upcoming S5 and A5 coupes, and an A4 Avant will go on sale in the U.S. at the same time as the sedan. Like the A5/S5, the new A4 has sculpted lines, a more aggressive front end, and a row of LED daytime running lights underlining each headlamp. Thanks to the liberal use of ultra-high-strength steel, the body weighs 10 percent less than last year's, yet is more rigid. The side view is rather familiar-time will tell if this redesign was too conservative, especially compared with the aggressive lines of the new C-Class.


Audi A4 interior is completely redesigned, with high-quality materials and clean, attractive design continue to live up to Audi's stellar reputation. Black leather seats and matching black door panels contrasted nicely with patterned brushed aluminum accents. The redesigned center stack is easy to use, and MMI is now a part of the A4's layout -- we've heard it will be standard with the 3.2 (optional) optional. The cabin is larger in every dimension, front and rear seats are now more comfortable, and there's more rear-seat legroom than in the outgoing model. The trunk is bigger -- now 17.0 cubic feet, up from 13.4. Regardless, leather will be standard and should come in a choice of colors. Stereo options will include a choice of Bang & Olufsen stereo systems, including the excellent 14-speaker setup, plus a six-disc CD changer and iPod connectivity. In the cabin are more safety features: six airbags will be standard and rear-side airbags optional.

When the A4 goes on sale, it will initially be offered in quattro form only, with one engine and transmission –
a new 3.2-liter,
265-horsepower V-6 backed by a ZF six-speed automatic.

A second engine will follow -- expect an all-new 2.0T four and a manual and/or DSG with quattro as an option. The direct-injection V-6 uses Audi's two-stage valve-lift system, which makes more efficient use of the engine to improve fuel economy by six percent. The A4 gets to 62 mph in an estimated 6.2 seconds when backed by the manual, and the transmission's shifts are quick and easy to control with the steering-wheel-mounted paddles. And, through the reduced weight of the body, reduction in drag (down from a 0.31 Cd to approximately 0.29), and changes to the air conditioner (now 10 percent more powerful and the fuel consumption needed to run it has been reduced by 20 percent), fuel economy has improved.

General Maintenance Tips For Your Car

A well maintained vehicle will never let down its owner. It will not desert you when you need it most. Here are a few maintenance tips for your car

Check the Engine Oil: To prevent the engine from deterioration, its important that the engine maintains the amount of oil it is programmed to receive. Negligence in doing so will lead to a deteriorating engine performance, meaning you'll get falling mileage.

Make Sure the Lights are working properly: It is important for the lights to be properly focused, for your own and for the oncoming vehicle's safety. Travel on low beam so that it does not obstruct your view instead of helping you along.

Have Suitable Tyre Pressure: The required amount of air pressure needs to be strictly maintained if your car is to get the right mileage and pick-up. Make sure pressure is not to high or you'll shorten the life of your tyres.

Radiator Water: If your engine uses water for cooling, take care to ensure that it is regularly changed.

Some other tips...
Get your vehicle serviced only at authorized service stations
Check the engine oil level once every two weeks. Also check the levels of coolant and water in the radiator and battery.
Always use genuine spare parts.
Avoid accelerating and braking abruptly.
Shut up the engine whenever you expect to wait.
Drive at a moderate speed of 45-55 km/h to maximize fuel efficiency.
Use air-conditioning only when necessary.
Avoid riding on the clutch pedal, and release the clutch pedal fully while driving.
Maintain optimum air pressure in your tyre to improve mileage.

How To Make your engine perform more efficiently

Try increasing displacement - the more displacement means the more power you’ll because it burns more gas during each revolution of the engine (Not very feul saving). Try making the cylinders bigger or by adding more cylinders. 12 seems to be the limit.

Modify the compression ratio – You can produce more power by increasing compression ratios. The more air/fuel mixture is compressed the more power it will generate, however the more likely it is to spontaneously burst into flame (prior to the spark plug igniting it). Higher octane gasolines prevent this sort of early combustion. High-performance cars generally use high octane gasoline – because the engines use high compression ratios.

Stuff more into each cylinder - you can get more power from the cylinder, if you can cram more air (and therefore fuel) into a cylinder of a given size. Turbo chargers and super chargers pressurize the incoming air to effectively cram more air into a cylinder.

Cool the incoming air – It get pretty hot when compressing air. You would like to have the coolest air possible in the cylinder because the hotter the air is the less it will expand when combustion takes place. An intercooler is a special radiator through which the compressed air passes to cool it off before it enters the cylinder. Therefore many turbo charged and super charged cars have an intercooler.

Let air come in more easily - As a piston moves down in the intake stroke, air resistance can rob power from the engine. Air resistance can be lessened dramatically by putting two intake valves in each cylinder. Some newer cars are also using polished intake manifolds to eliminate air resistance there. Bigger air filters can also improve air flow.

Let exhaust exit more easily - If air resistance makes it hard for exhaust to exit a cylinder, it robs the engine of power. Air resistance can be lessened by adding a second exhaust valve to each cylinder (a car with 2 intake and 2 exhaust values has 4 valves per cylinder, which improves performance - when you hear a car ad tell you the car has 4 cylinders and 16 valves, what the ad is saying is that the engine has four valves per cylinder). If the exhaust pipe is too small or the muffler has a lot of air resistance then this can cause back-pressure which has the same effect. High-performance exhaust systems use headers, big tail pipes and free-flowing mufflers to eliminate back-pressure in the exhaust system. When you hear that a car has "Dual Exhaust", the goal is to improve the flow of exhaust by having two exhaust pipes instead of one.

Try making everything lighter - The lighter the piston, the less energy it takes. Lightweight parts help the engine perform better. Each time a piston changes direction it uses up energy to stop the travel in one direction and start it in another.

Inject the fuel - This improves performance and fuel economy.
Fuel injection allows very precise metering of fuel to each cylinder.

Audi R8, a very special sports coupe

The Audi R8's well proportioned design screams speed. The R8's leather-clad cockpit is spacious and well appointed. Even the R8's manual six-speed gear shifter is elegant. The European Audi R8 will also be the first production vehicle to feature all-LED headlights. The Audi R8 also features an optional Bang & Olufsen sound system.

2008 Audi R8
Type:
Mid-engine, all-wheel drive sports coupe

Retail price:
$109,000-$134,750

Engine:
4.2-liter V-8, 420-horsepower, 317-pound-feet torque

Transmission:
6-speed manual or automatic

EPA mileage
# Manual: 13 mpg city / 20 mpg highway
# Automatic: 13 city / 19 highway


Report card

Exterior: Excellent.
Smooth, sleek and bulletlike. Its wide stance and deceptively long body add to its intimidating exterior.

Interior: Excellent.
The seats hold you firmly in even the tightest of corners.

Safety: Excellent.
Front, knee and side air bags. Precise handling, stability control and anti-lock brakes.

Performance: Unbelievable.
Fast and furious.

Pros: Beautiful and beastly:
Will be noticed everywhere you go. Other super sports cars are often considerably more.

Cons:
Don't drive it to any Green Peace meetings. Powerful engine gobbles up fuel.

Potential causes Dieseling

An automobile engine that is dieseling will typically sputter then gradually stop rather than continue running as if the engine was not switched off at all — the latter would usually indicate an electrical fault.


Potential causes

This condition can occur for a multitude of reasons:

* Built-up carbon in the ignition chamber can glow red after the engine is off, providing a mechanism for sparking unburnt fuel. Such a thing can happen when the engine runs very rich, depositing unspent fuel and particles on the pistons and valves. Similarly, non-smooth metal regions within the piston chamber can cause this same problem, since they can glow red. It has also been suggested that an improperly rated sparkplug can retain heat and cause the same problem.

* A carburetor that does not close entirely can contribute to running once the engine is off, since the extra fuel and oxygen mixture can combust easily in the warm piston chamber. Similarly, hot vaporized oil gases from the engine crankcase can provide ample fuel for dieseling.

* Incorrect timing.

* An engine that runs too hot or too lean may produce an environment conducive to allowing unspent fuel to combust.

* An idle speed that is too fast can leave the engine with too much angular momentum upon shutdown, raising the chances that the engine can turnover and combust more fuel and lock itself into a cycle of continuous running.


Potential fixes

Items similar to carburetor cleaners and carbon cleaners have been suggested as partial remedies for attempting to clean the piston chambers and valves of engines that run too rich.

For those engines that have sharp metallic edges, it has been noted that poorly milled heads and blocks can contribute to this problem, so having the rough spots smoothed may help.

For those engines that run too hot or too lean, verify that all mechanisms in place to cool the engine properly function as they should. Replace the thermostat if necessary. Clean the radiator. Verify that all auxiliary fans engage at their proper temperatures, and ensure that the thermostatic sensors on belt driven fans engage as necessary.

In the case that there is too much angular momentum, lower the idle speed if possible.

2008 Audi TT coupe and convertible

The redesigned 2008 Audi TT coupe is longer, wider and faster.

2008 Audi TT coupe and convertible

Type:
A rear-wheel drive two-passenger convertible or 2+2 coupe.

Models:
Coupe (with 2+2 seating); Roadster (two-seater)

Retail price*:
$35,575 -- $50,000

Engines:
# 2-liter 4-cylinder turbo, 200 horsepower, 207-pound-feet torque;
# 3.2-liter V-6: 250-horsepower, 236-pound-feet torque

Transmission:
# 2-liter: six-speed automatic with sequential shifting.
# 3.2-liter: six-speed automatic with sequential shifting or six-speed manual.

EPA mileage

# 2-liter:
Coupe: 23 mpg / 31 mpg
Roadster:
22/29

# 3.2-liter (both types with automatic transmission):18/24

# 3.2-liter (both types with manual transmission): 17/24

Notes:
Expect a six-speed manual transmission to come with the 2-liter engine in the coming years
*Includes shipping


Performance:
Excellent. Engine is powerful for such a light vehicle. Optional sports tuned suspension package makes both vehicles a hoot to drive.

Exterior: Excellent.
Sleek lines and distinctive style maintain Audi's upscale character.

Interior: Excellent.
Luxury at your fingertips and flat bottom steering wheel makes it even feel different and special.

Safety: Excellent.
Front and side-curtain airbags as well as electronic stability control.

Pros:
It's comfortable and fun to drive; you'll never want to get to where you're going. The best deal is the coupe with the 2-liter engine.

Cons:
Cramped trunk space and steep price tag could keep the TT convertible from being a daily driver.

3.2 liter V-6 engine in the 2008 Audi TT produces 250 horsepower.

G60

The G60 is a supercharged straight-4 petrol engine manufactured by Volkswagen in the early 1990s. The engine displaced 1.8 L (1781 cc), had 8 valves (two per cylinder) and produced 160 PS (118 kW/158 hp). Although it was based on an existing engine, it underwent so many modifications it is usually regarded as a separate powerplant from others VW produced. It was named after the intricate "G-Lader" supercharger that it was mated to, this supercharger having a 60 mm wide displacer - hence the "G60" moniker.

The engine debuted in 1988 in the Corrado, which took 8.3 seconds to reach 100 km/h and had a maximum speed of 225 km/h (140 mph). In 1989 it was adapted for the Passat and the VW Golf Mk.II, in which it was capable of propelling the car to 100 km/h (62 mph) in 7.8 seconds, with a maximum speed of 216 km/h (134 mph). In the United States the engine was used only in the Corrado, and was dropped in 1992 in favor of the newer, more powerful VR6.

A low-production, all-wheel drive variant of the Golf G60 called the Golf Rallye was also powered by the 8-valve G60, but the engine was reduced to 1763 cc for sports homologation purposes. Power remained 160 PS. A 16-valve G60 engine was used in the ultra-rare Golf Limited, of which only 71 were produced, all with four-wheel drive. Power was raised to 210 PS (154 kW/207 hp), and the car could now reach 100 km/h in 6.4 seconds, reaching a maximum speed of 247 km/h (153 mph).

The G60 engine, like any supercharged and turbocharged engine, was sensitive to excessive air temperature, so performance very much depended on the weather conditions. Some models, like the Corrado or even some variants of the Golf Rallye, had a bigger, better-placed intercooler, resulting in increased performance over the standard intercooler and location.

Though there is no recommendation from Volkswagen, the compressor should be serviced every 100,000 km with an expensive repair likely.

A smaller version of the G60, called the G40, was used in the Polo Coupé supermini. The maximum power of this nervous little machine was 113 PS (83 kW/111 hp), propelling the car to 196 km/h (122 mph).

Turbocharger Tips

Turbocharger serves to pump more air into the engine boosting engine power without increasing the engine volume.
Due to its design, the turbocharger works at very high temperatures. Therefore, the requirements to the engine oil quality are much higher. Low quality, or old contaminated oil can be easily cooked under high temperature in the turbocharger causing it to fail.
Here are few tips:
- If it's not against manufacturer recommendations, use synthetic oil, or at least be very accurate with regular oil changes.

- When you stop the car after hard driving (speeding, accelerating, etc.) don't shut the engine off right away, let it idle for a while to cool down the turbocharger.

- Very long uphill driving under constant load may also cause turbo to overheat, try to avoid it if possible.

Campro engine

Campro engine is the first automotive engine ever developed by the Malaysian automotive corporation, Proton. The name Campro is short for Cam Profile. This engine powers the Proton Gen-2, the Proton Satria Neo, the Proton Waja Campro as well as Proton's future models. The Campro engine is aimed to show Proton's ability to make their own engines that produces good power output and meets newer emission standards.


Basic DOHC engine

The basic Campro engine coded as S4PH is a basic DOHC 16-valve 1.6 L engine that produces 110 bhp (82 kW) @ 6,500 rpm of horsepower and 148 N-m of torque. This is the engine that powers the Proton Gen-2. The S4PH engine can be fitted with Cam Profile Switching (CPS) and Variable Inlet Manifold (VIM) technology. Besides this 1.6 L engine, Proton has produced the 1.3 L version of the Campro engine.

Even though the S4PH engine seems to be quite powerful at higher revs, its performance is reportedly sluggish at lower revs and this is proven by driving the Gen-2 uphills where drivers who drive the manual transmission version have to shift a lot between 2nd gear and 3rd gear. This is due to its torque dip between 3,000 ~ 3,500 rpm where the torque decreases slightly before picking up back to the maximum torque at 4,000 rpm.

Before the engine is ready to be installed in the Gen-2 cars, Proton installed the engine in the Waja specialized for on-road tests.

Currently the Campro engines installed in the Gen-2 has none of the promised cam profile switching (CPS) and variable inlet manifold technologies. No date nor any information has been known as to when Proton will equip its models with the promised full-spec engine.

Another engine option for the basic DOHC engine is a 1.3L engine coded as S4PE. While the power output of S4PH engine can't be considered as impressive, the S4PE engine produces 94 bhp (70 kW) @ 6,000 rpm and the torque of 120 N-m @ 4,000 rpm, much more powerful than most 1.3L rivals, even with variable valve timing technology.

The bore x stroke dimensions for both engines are as follows:-

* S4PH (1.6L): 76 x 88 mm, resulting the displacement of 1597 cc.
* S4PE (1.3L): 76 x 73.4 mm, resulting the displacement of 1332 cc.


Campro CPS and VIM engine

In addition to the basic DOHC engine, Proton developed its own variable valve timing technology that works similar with other variable valve technologies such as Honda VTEC and Toyota VVTi, named as CPS (Cam Profile Switching) technology. The usage of CPS tehnology will raise the maximum power up to about 127 bhp and will improve the low-end torque to its maximum value which will maintain until about 5,000 rpm. The technology is said to be applied to newer Gen-2s and future models starting from the end of 2005, but currently the CPS technology is still under testing.

The Campro's Variable Intake Manifold technology is currently being developed by Robert Bosch GmbH, and is expected to make it's debut in the second half of 2007.


Campro GDI engine

Recently, Proton is developing their own gasoline direct injection version of Campro engines which will be used in the future. Currently, the Campro GDI engine is still under research and development, therefore very little information available for the Campro GDI engine.


Supercharged Campro engine

Recently, Proton has announced to collaborate with Kleemann, the company that supplies superchargers for Mercedes-Benz compressor models for the coming Proton Satria replacement model. Little is known about the engine, but the engine is rumored as a 1.8L engine equipped with a supercharger supplied by Kleemann. Mercedes-Benz usually sources its superchargers from Eaton Corporation.


Hybrid Campro engine

Recently, Proton and Lotus have announced their concept model of a Proton Gen-2 powered by a hybrid powerplant that uses the Campro engine. The concept model will be revealed during the 2007 Geneva Motor Show from 8 ~ 18 March 2007.

The hybrid powerplant system, which is known as EVE system (Efficient, Viable, Environmental) will be using the same S4PH engine as the one that powers the present gasoline version of the Gen-2, combined together with a 30 kW, 144V electric motor. The main purpose of the hybrid powerplant system is to provide a hybrid system that can be retrofitted to existing models, retaining the same powerplant and also eliminates the need to develop a completely different platform, like the Honda Civic Hybrid.

The EVE Hybrid System will have 3 key technologies:-

1. "Micro-hybrid" start-stop system - An integrated starter-alternator system is installed to switch off the engine automatically when the engine stops, for example at the traffic light. The engine will automatically restart when the gas pedal is depressed.

2. Full parallel hybrid technology - Combines the existing S4PH engine with a 30 kW, 144V electric motor, resulting in higher power (141 bhp combined), higher torque (233 N-m combined), lower emission (up to 22% carbon dioxide reduction) and better fuel economy (up to 28%). The system also includes regenerative braking system.

3. Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) - The CVT system provides an infinite number of gear ratios for better efficiency.

The combined power and torque for the powerplant system are as follows:-

* Max power (gasoline engine only): 110 bhp (82 kW) @ 6,000 rpm
* Max torque (gasoline engine only): 148 N-m @ 4,000 rpm
* Max power (combined): 141 bhp (105 kW) @ 5,500 rpm
* Max torque (combined): 233 N-m @ 1,500 rpm (limited to 180 N-m continuous)

General Motors XV8 engine

The all-new engine provides the power of a full-size, high-end V8, but has greater fuel efficiency, the width of a V-6, and the length of a four-cylinder.

With an aluminum block and head, the 4.3 liter XV8 has three valves per cylinder with an air-assisted direct fuel injection system and two camshafts in the block. Power ratings are 300 horsepower (224 kW) and 295 lb-ft (400 Nm) of torque.

Other features include variable inlet systems (currently the main feature of Chrysler's Magnum engines), cam phasing, and displacement on demand (first seen on the ill-fated Cadillac 4-6-8 engines), variable inlet valve timing (common to Toyota and Honda engines), a narrow 75-degree bank angle, twin oil pumps, and an integrated air compressor. A GM spokesman said this combination was possible, in its best form, because of the engine's clean-sheet design: there was no need to compromise new features to co-exist with existing designs. That was especially important for direct injection.

The XV8's compression ratio of 10.75:1 is achieved with regular gasoline.
Key features

The all-aluminum 4.3-liter XV8 utilizes a unique three-valves-per-cylinder combustion chamber configuration, supporting the optimization of an air-assisted direct fuel injection system. The configuration features an industry first: two camshafts in the block. The XV8 produces 224 kW (300 horsepower) and 400 Nm (295 lb-ft) of torque.

The air-assisted direct injection gasoline system was developed by Orbital Engine Corp. of Australia, and is integrated into three-valve cylinder heads and dual cams in the block. The three valve system (two inlet valves, one exhaust) provides more room in the combustion chamber for optimal positioning of the injector and the spark plug, vertical and nearly central in the chamber - positioned as they would be in a Hemi engine.

Having two cams in the block rather than dual overhead cams provides considerable packaging benefits and combined with the direct injection fuel system, contributes to the XV8's outstanding performance numbers. The clean burning also means that after-combustion pollution control can be milder.

GM's Displacement on Demand technology allows the V8 to shut down half of its cylinders seamlessly at predetermined times to significantly reduce fuel consumption without hampering performance.

The unique twin oil pump design allows the engine to run Displacement on Demand at idle, since the system and cam phasing system have their own dedicated oil pump, which provides enough pressure to deactivate the cylinders at idle and reactivate them immediately upon throttle engagement.

The use of a camshaft "phaser" separates the timing functions of the intake and exhaust valves. This is accomplished in the XV8 engine by having two in-block camshafts, one for inlet operation and one for exhaust. The camshafts are located in a vertical plane above the crankshaft and parallel to its center of rotation. The intake camshaft is the lower camshaft and is approximately in the center of the block. The exhaust cam is positioned above the intake. Because the intake camshaft rather than the exhaust is "phased," the XV8's camshaft drive provides the ability to better modify and enhance full-load engine torque characteristics. In the stratified combustion mode of operation, it can be used to increase the charge dilution by advancing the intake cam timing. The set-up reduces friction and fuel consumption, particularly at idle and part-load, and also contributes to the engine's outstanding low-end torque. Having two camshafts in the engine block with the ability to "phase" one of the cams is unique to GM.

"With the cams in the block," GM's Fritz Indra said, "the valve timing precision is better than with a DOHC configuration. The different heat levels with long belts and chains in a DOHC set-up always changes the valve timing."

The air-assist direct injection system requires port geometries that generate a minimum of "in-cylinder" motion when the system is operating in stratified mode. During homogeneous operating conditions, in-cylinder motion is required in similar fashion to port fuel injected engines. The inlet manifold design supports these design objectives to achieve maximum fuel economy. The resulting design also allows the engine to deliver a broad torque band suited to spirited driving styles, supports the peak power objectives, and fully accommodates the Displacement on Demand system.

The XV8 is unique not only in that it has two oil pumps, but also in that the engine's balance shaft doubles as the oil pump drive shaft. The former allows for such functions as cam phasing and Displacement on Demand at idle and the latter contributes to the engine's compact packaging.

Because the XV8 requires extensive hydraulic function, two oil pumps were used in a serial fashion. If the lubrication system was designed with the typical single oil pump, its displacement would have to be substantially increased to provide minimum pressure to the entire engine. The primary pump supplies low pressure filtered oil to the bearings, valve lifters and secondary pump inlet. The secondary pump acts to intensify the pressure for supply to the cam phaser and Displacement on Demand systems. In doing this, parasitic power consumption to the oil pump is minimized.

Because of packaging constraints, the oil pump drive was combined with the balance shaft assembly. To get the necessary 1:1 counter-rotation of the balance shaft, it is driven by a helical gear pressed on the rear of the crankshaft.

"The drive for the pumps is the balance shaft, which has to go opposite engine rotation at engine speed because of our narrow bank angle," GM's Alan Hayman said. "So we get the balance shaft basically for free and this is all packaged in the sump that bolts to the bottom of the block. That is unique. Also, placing the oil pumps at each end of the balance shaft helps to damp vibrations."

The XV8's air compressor is integrated into the engine assembly. "That's another unique aspect of the engine," Hayman said. "The air compressor is part of the engine assembly itself, not just a component bolted onto the accessory drive somewhere as a stand alone pump. It's integrated to the back of the cylinder head and all of the fluids are transferred through this interface. This avoids the requirement for the myriad of hoses that would have traditionally been required including the avoidance of having to run a separate air-assist rail."

Buick Small-Block

In 1961 Buick unveiled an entirely new small V8 engine with aluminum cylinder heads and cylinder block. Lightweight and powerful, the aluminum V8 also spawned a turbocharged version, (only in the 1962-63 Oldsmobile Cutlass version), the first ever offered in a passenger car. It became the basis of a highly successful cast iron V6 engine, the Fireball. The all-aluminum engine was dropped after the 1963 model year, but was replaced with a very similar cast-iron engine.


215

GM experimented with aluminum engines starting in the early 1950s, and work on a production unit commenced in 1956. Originally intended for 180 in³ (2.9 L) displacement, Buick was designated by GM as the engine design leader, and decided to begin with a larger, 215 in³ (3.5 L) size, which was deemed ideal for the new "senior compact cars" introduced for the 1961 model year. This group of cars was commonly called the BOP group or A-bodies.

The 215 had a 4.24 in (107.7 mm) bore spacing, a bore of 3.5 in (88.9 mm), and a stroke of 2.8 in (71.1 mm), for an actual displacement of 3533 cc. The engine was the lightest mass-production V8 in the world, with a dry weight of only 318 lb (144 kg). It was standard equipment in the 1961 Buick Special.

Oldsmobile and Pontiac also used the all-aluminum 215 on its mid-sized cars, the Oldsmobile F-85 and Pontiac Tempest. However the Oldsmobile version of this engine, although sharing the same basic architecture, had cylinder heads designed by Oldsmobile engineers, and was produced on a separate assembly line. Among the differences between the Oldsmobile and Buick versions, it was somewhat heavier, at 350 lb (159 kg). The design differences were in the cylinder heads: Buick used a 5-bolt pattern around each cylinder where Oldsmobile went to a 6-bolt pattern. The 6th bolt was added to the intake manifold side of the head, one extra bolt for each cylinder. This was supposed to alleviate the head-warping problems that came about on the higher compression ratio versions. Later Rover versions of the aluminum block and subsequent Buick iron small blocks (300, 340 and 350) went to a 4 bolt per cylinder pattern.

At introduction, Buick's 215 was rated 150 hp (112 kW) at 4400 rpm. This was raised soon after introduction to 155 hp (116 kW) at 4600 rpm. 220 ft·lbf (298 N·m) of torque was produced at 2400 rpm with a Rochester 2GC two-barrel carburetor and 8.8:1 compression ratio. A mid-year introduction was the Buick Special Skylark version, which had 10.25:1 compression and a four-barrel carburetor, raising output to 185 hp (138 kW) at 4800 rpm and 230 ft·lbf (312 N·m) at 2800 rpm.

For 1962, the four-barrel engine increased compression ratio to 11.0:1, raising it to 190 hp (142 kW) at 4800 rpm and 235 ft·lbf (319 N·m) at 3000 rpm. The two-barrel engine was unchanged. For 1963 the four-barrel was bumped to an even 200 hp (149 kW) at 5000 rpm and 240 ft·lbf (325 N·m) at 3200 rpm, a respectable 0.93 hp/in³ (56.6 hp/liter).

Unfortunately, the great expense of the aluminum engine led to its cancellation after the 1963 model year. The engine had an abnormally high scrap ratio due to hidden block-casting porosity problems, which caused serious oil leaks. Another problem was clogged radiators from antifreeze mixtures incompatible with aluminum. It was said that one of the major problems was because they had to make extensive use of air gaging to check for casting leaks during the manufacturing process, and not being able to detect leaks on blocks that were as much as 95% complete. This raised the cost of complete engines to more than that of a comparable all cast-iron engine. Casting sealing technology was not advanced enough at that time to prevent the high scrap rates.

The Buick 215's very high power to weight ratio made it immediately interesting for automotive and marine racing. Mickey Thompson entered a stock-block Buick 215-powered car in the 1962 Indianapolis_500. From 1946 to 1962 there hadn't been a single stock-block car in this famous race. In 1962 the Buick 215 was the only non-Offenhauser powered entry in the field of 33 cars. Rookie driver Dan_Gurney qualified eighth and raced well for 92 laps before retiring with transmission problems.

Surplus engine blocks of the Oldsmobile (6 bolt per cylinder) version of this engine formed the basis of the Formula One Repco V8 used by Brabham to win the 1966 and 1967 Formula One championship. No other American stock-block engine has won a Formula One championship.

Buick 215s have been engine swapped into countless sports cars including especially Chevrolet Vegas and MG sports cars. The engine remains well supported by enthusiast clubs, specialist parts suppliers, and by shops that specialize in these conversions.

The Buick 215 was used in a small sports car known as the Apollo from 1962 to 1963, and also in the Asardo 3500 GM-S show car.

Although dropped by GM in 1963, in January 1965 the tooling for the aluminum engine was sold to Britain's Rover Group to become the Rover V8 engine, which would remain in use for more than 35 years. GM tried to buy it back later on, but Rover declined, instead offering to sell engines back to GM. GM refused this offer.


300

In 1964 Buick replaced the 215 with an iron-block engine of very similar architecture. The new engine had a bore of 3.75 in (95.5 mm) and a stroke of 3.40 in (86.4 mm) for a displacement of 300.4 cu. in. (4.9 L). It retained the aluminum cylinder heads, intake manifold, and accessories of the 215 for a dry weight of 405 lb (184 kg). The 300 was offered in two-barrel form, with 9.0:1 compression, making 210 hp @ 4600 rpm and 310 ft·lbf @ 2400 rpm, and four-barrel form, with 11.0:1 compression, making 250 hp @ 4800 rpm and 335 ft·lbf @ 3000 rpm.

For 1965 the 300 switched to a cast-iron heads, raising dry weight to 467 lb (212 kg), still quite light for a V8 engine of its era. The four-barrel option was cancelled for 1966, and the 300 was replaced entirely by the 350 in 1968.

The Apollo sports car, also known as the Vetta Ventura, used this engine.


340

The 340 in³ (5.6 L) 340 was a stroked (to 3.85 in/97.8 mm) version of the 300. It had a two-barrel or four-barrel carburetor, the two barrel with 220 hp, and the four barrel with 11.0:1 compression, rated at 260 hp @ 4200 rpm and 365 ft·lbf @ 2800 rpm. It replaced the four-barrel 300 for 1966. It was produced only in 1966 and 1967, with the new Buick 350 taking its place after that.


350

Buick adopted the popular 350 in³ (5.7 L) size with their final family of V8s. Although sharing the displacement of the Chevrolet Small-Block engine family, the Buicks were substantially different.

The Buick 350 V8 had a 3.80 in bore (like the 231) and retained the 3.85 in stroke of the 340. It was introduced in 1968 and produced through 1980.

The major differences of the Buick 350 when compared to other GM V8's are, deep skirt block construction, higher nickel-content cast iron, external oil pump, under square bore sizing, 3.0" crank main journals, and 6.5" connecting rods. It is an extremely rugged and durable engine, and some of the design characteristics of the Buick 350 are found in modern GM engines such as the 231 V6, and Series I, II, and III 3800 V6's.

Of all the GM 350-inch engines, the Buick 350 has the longest stroke, which lends to making significantly more torque than any of the others. It also made the Buick 350 significantly wider - essentially the same width as the Buick big-blocks, which have the shortest stroke of the GM big-blocks. In fact, at a glance the buick 350 is commonly mistaken for the 455 engine due to the oversized intake manifold atop the engine. The Buick 350 also shares an integrated Aluminum timing cover as do most of the Buick small & big blocks that incorporates the oil pump mechanisms as well. Leaving the oil filter exposed to oncoming air for added cooling.

The Buick 350 was used in the Jeep Gladiator and Wagoneer from 1968 to 1971.

Toyota 4A-GZE engine

The 4A-GZE (produced in various forms from 1986 through 1995) was the supercharged version. Based on the same block and head, the 4A-GZE was equipped with a roots-type supercharger and therefore the compression ratio, valve timing and ports were modified. It was used in the North American supercharged Toyota MR2, rated at 145 hp (108 kW) and 140 ft·lbf (190 N·m). Later versions of this engine are rated 170 hp (127 kW) and 155 ft·lbf (210 N·m) for the AE92 and AE101 Corolla.


4A-GE (20-valve)

A special 4A-GE was produced from 1991 through 1998 to replace the 16 valve 4A-GE. It was a naturally-aspirated engine with an additional intake valve for each cylinder, making it one of the first production 5-valve engines in history. These generation engines also featured quad throttle bodies. The engine can be recognized by its silver or black top. This was the last of the 4A family to be produced. Toyota VVT was used for 160–165 hp (123–127 kW) at 7800 rpm and 120 ft·lbf (162 N·m) at 5600 rpm, quite impressive for a naturally-aspirated 1.6 L engine. Note that although VVT was present in the silver top and the black top 4A-GE, VVT-i was not available.

Some Racing team participating in the Group A of the JGTC, using either the AE101, AE86 or AE82 corollas used modified silvertop versions of the engine, capable of approximately 240 Horsepowers at 11,000 RPM. The AE86 was particuraly popular, being able to beat cars with bigger engine such as the skyline.

Applications:

* 1992 Toyota Corolla Levin, Sprinter Trueno AE101 (silver-top) All GT models (GT Apex GT-V etc)

* 1995 Toyota Corolla Levin, Sprinter Trueno AE111 (black-top) All BZ models (BZG, BZR, BZV etc)

Toyota Variable Induction System,

Toyota Variable Induction System, or T-VIS, is a variable intake system designed by Toyota.

It improves the low-end torque of high-performance, small displacement four-stroke engines by changing the geometry of the intake manifold according to the engine rotation speed. The system uses two separate intake runners per cylinder, one being equipped with a butterfly valve that can either open or close the runner. All valves are attached to a common shaft which is rotated by a vacuum actuator outside the manifold.

The engine control unit allows vacuum into the actuator by powering a solenoid valve when the engine rotation speed is below 4200 rpm.Above this engine speed vacuum is cut off and a spring inside the actuator causes the butterfly valve to fully open. The theory behind the system is that in the lower speed band the velocity of the intake air can be improved because the intake runner cross section per cylinder is smaller. However, when the engine gains speed, the required air flow volume is more significant so the second runner is opened to improve the flow.

Toyota used the T-VIS system from the mid-80s to early 90s on its high-performance twincam engines, such as the 4A-GE and 3S-GE.

PRV engine

The PRV engine is an automobile petrol V6 engine that was developed jointly by Peugeot, Renault and Volvo Cars and sold from 1974 to 1998. It was gradually replaced after 1994 by another joint PSA-Renault design known as the ES engine at PSA and the L engine at Renault.


Engineering


Ignition timing

The original engineering work done on the V8 can still be seen in the resulting V6: its cylinder banks are arranged at 90° instead of the much more common 60°. V8 engines nearly universally feature 90° configurations because this allows for a natural firing order. V6 engines, on the other hand, are generally arranged at 60° (again because of timing) but can be built as 90° engines with either staggered timing or split crankshaft journals.

First-generation PRV engines (1974-1985) featured uneven ignition timing. Second generation PRV engines (introduced in 1984 in the Renault 25 Turbo) featured split crankshaft journals and even ignition timing all electronically controlled. [1] Other similar design examples are the odd-fire and even-fire Buick V6 and the Maserati V6 seen in the Citroën SM.


The ignition timing has nothing to do with the bank of the cylinders; V8s run smoothest with a 90º bank, while V6s run smoothest with a 60º bank. I do believe, however, that changing the cylinder firing order can result in a better idle quality and less vibrations. That is why the modern chevy small block v8 changed its firing order with the introduction of the LS series of engines in 1997.


Specifications

* Power (DIN): 100 kW at 92 r/s (136 hp at 5,500 rpm)
* Power (SAE): 97 kW at 92 r/s (130 hp at 5,500 rpm)
* Torque (DIN): 215 Nm at 48 r/s
* Torque (SAE): 208 Nm at 48 r/s (153 ft.lbf at 2,750 rpm)
* Compression ratio: 8.8:1
* Bore: 91 mm
* Stroke: 73 mm
* Displacement: 2,849 cm³
* Firing order: 1-6-3-5-2-4
* Weight: ~150 kg


PRV powered automobiles

The dates following each entry denote the introduction of a PRV V6-equipped model

* Alpine A310 (October 1976)
* Alpine A610 (1991)
* Alpine GT/GTA (1984)
* Citroën XM (1989)
* De Lorean DMC-12 (1981)
* Dodge Monaco (1990-1992)
* Eagle Premier (1988-1992)
* Helem V6
* Lancia Thema (1984)
* Peugeot 504 coupé/cabriolet (1974/1975)
* Peugeot 505 (July 1986)
* Peugeot 604 (March 1975)
* Peugeot 605 (1990)
* Renault 25 (1984)
* Renault 30 (March 1975)
* Renault Espace
* Renault Laguna
* Renault Safrane
* Talbot Tagora (1980)
* Venturi (all models)
* Volvo 262/264/265 (October 3, 1974)
* Volvo 760 GLE (February 1982)
* Volvo 780 (1985)


PRV engines in racing

* Alpine A310 V6
* Fouquet buggies
* Peugeot 504 V6 Coupé
* Schlesser Original
* Venturi 400GTR and 600LM
* WM Peugeot

Exhaust gas recirculation

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a NOx (nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide) reduction technique used in most gasoline and diesel engines.

EGR works by recirculating a portion of an engine's exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders. Intermixing the incoming air with recirculated exhaust gas dilutes the mix with inert gas, lowering the adiabatic flame temperature and (in diesel engines) reducing the amount of excess oxygen. The exhaust gas also increases the specific heat capacity of the mix lowering the peak combustion temperature. Because NOx formation progresses much faster at high temperatures, EGR serves to limit the generation of NOx. NOx is primarily formed when a mix of nitrogen and oxygen is subjected to high temperatures.


EGR in Spark-Ignited (SI) Engines

In a typical automotive SI engine, 5 to 15 percent of the exhaust gas is routed back to the intake as EGR (thus comprising 5 to 15 percent of the mixture entering the cylinders). The maximum quantity is limited by the requirement of the mixture to sustain a contiguous flame front during the combustion event; excessive EGR in an SI engine can cause misfires and partial burns. Although EGR does measurably slow combustion, this can largely be compensated for by advancing spark timing. Contrary to popular belief, a properly operating EGR actually increases the efficiency of gasoline engines via several mechanisms:

* Reduced throttling losses. The addition of inert exhaust gas into the intake system means that for a given power output, the throttle plate must be opened further, resulting in increased inlet manifold pressure and reduced throttling losses.

* Reduced heat rejection. Lowered peak combustion temperatures not only reduces NOx formation, it also reduces the loss of thermal energy to combustion chamber surfaces, leaving more available for conversion to mechanical work during the expansion stroke.

* Reduced chemical dissociation. The lower peak temperatures result in more of the released energy remaining as sensible energy near TDC, rather than being bound up (early in the expansion stroke) in the dissociation of combustion products. This effect is relatively minor compared to the first two.

It also decreases the efficiency of gasoline engines via a few more mechanisms

* Reduced intake charge density. EGR tends to heat the intake charge. This means a bigger piston or stroke must be used to induct the same amount of fuel and air mixture. This results in a bigger and heavier engine.

* Reduced specific heat ratio. A lean intake charge has a higher specific heat ratio than an EGR mixture. A reduction of specific heat ratio reduces the amount of energy that can be extracted by the piston.

EGR is typically not employed at high loads because it would reduce peak power output, and it is not employed at idle (low-speed, zero load) because it would cause unstable combustion, resulting in rough idle.


EGR in Diesel Engines

In modern diesel engines, the EGR gas is cooled through a heat exchanger to allow the introduction of a greater mass of recirculated gas. Unlike SI engines, diesels are not limited by the need for a contiguous flamefront; furthermore, since diesels always operate with excess air, they benefit from EGR rates as high as 50% (at idle, where there is otherwise a very large amount of excess air) in controlling NOx emissions.

Since diesel engines are unthrottled, EGR does not lower throttling losses in the way that it does for SI engines (see above). However, exhaust gas (largely carbon dioxide and water vapor) has a higher specific heat than air, and so it still serves to lower peak combustion temperatures; this aids the diesel engine's efficiency by reduced heat rejection and dissociation. There are trade offs however. Adding EGR to a diesel reduces the specific heat ratio of the combustion gases in the power stroke. This reduces the amount of power that can be extracted by the piston. EGR also tends to reduce the amount of fuel burned in the power stroke. This is evident by the increase in particulate emissions that corresponds to an increase in EGR. Particulate matter (mainly carbon) that is not burned in the power stroke is wasted energy. Stricter regulations on particulate matter(PM) call for further emission controls to be introduced to compensate for the PM emissions introduced by EGR. The most common is particulate filters in the exhaust system that result in reduce fuel efficiency. Since EGR increases the amount of PM that must be dealt with and reduces the exhaust gas temperatures and available oxygen these filters need to function properly to burn off soot, automakers have had to consider injecting fuel and air directly into the exhaust system to keep these filters from plugging up.


Implementation of EGR

Recirculation is usually achieved by piping a route from the exhaust manifold to the inlet manifold, which is called external EGR. A control valve (EGR Valve) within the circuit regulates and times the gas flow. Some engine designs perform EGR by trapping exhaust gas within the cylinder by not fully expelling it during the exhaust stroke, which is called internal EGR. A form of internal EGR is used in the rotary Atkinson cycle engine.

EGR can also be used by using a variable geometry turbocharger (VGT) which uses variable inlet guide vanes to build sufficient backpressure in the exhaust manifold. For EGR to flow, a pressure difference is required across the intake and exhaust manifold and this is created by the VGT.

Other methods that have been experimented with are using a throttle in a turbocharged diesel engine to decrease the intake pressure to initiate EGR flow.

Early EGR systems were relatively unsophisticated, utilizing manifold vacuum as the only input to an on/off EGR valve; reduced performance and/or drivability were common side-effects. However, modern systems utilizing electronic engine control computers, multiple control inputs, and servo-driven EGR valves typically improve performance/efficiency with no impact on drivability. In the past, a meaningful fraction of car owners disconnected their EGR systems. Some still do either because they believe EGR reduces power output, causes a build-up in the intake manifold in diesel engines, or because they feel the environmental intentions of EGR are misguided. Disconnecting an EGR system is usually as simple as unplugging an electrically operated valve or inserting a ball bearing into the vacuum line in a vacuum-operated EGR valve. In all cases, the EGR system will need to be operating normally in order to pass emissions tests.

Hybrid Cars

The hybrid version of automobiles offers the customer an interesting assortment of engine features that are supplemented with power options through the use of electrical motor and battery participation. These engine features are not available in every hybrid automobile currently being sold at automobile dealerships or through private sales in society today. The hybrid engines are equipped with gas powered, or dual powered engines, as well as an electrical motor that renders power support when needed. There is a heavy duty battery that serves as a source of power as well.

Within the hybrid breed of automobile engine varieties, there is a mild hybrid category and a full hybrid category. While each of these categories contain the same equipment, the performance of that installed equipment can cause your automobile to operate on entirely different principles. The mild hybrid category consists of a gas powered automobile engine that serves as the propulsion mechanism to move your automobile down the street.

Paired with this gas powered automobile engine is an electrical motor, as well as a heavy duty battery that are snuggly connected throughout the engine maze of pipes and mechanisms that when energized can provide propulsion to move your automobile forward. The hybrid car engine is the only source of propulsion power in the mild hybrid engine model, and the electrical motor remains in standby mode to provide spurts of energy and power to aid the gas powered engine in passing vehicles on a highway or wherever else a sudden surge of power will be of benefit.

The full hybrid category consists of a gas powered automobile engine that is considered the propulsion mechanism as well as an energy saving device. An electrical motor and a heavy duty battery are also part of this full hybrid engine power force. The gas powered engine works hand in hand with the electrical motor to provide the necessary boosts of energy to cause the car to propel through traffic. When the car is stopped at a traffic light, the gas powered engine will cease to operate, and the electrical motor will take over in providing propulsion power for the car to move from the site. Once the car achieves a good level of speed, the gas powered engine in the hybrid car will automatically engage and cause the car to continue down the street under gas engine power. The heavy duty battery is continually charged by the electrical motor at the same time.

The energy savings are accumulated during the different stops and starts that the vehicle might experience as the automobile moves toward its destination. Whenever the gas powered engine is not engaged there is a cost savings realized in its lax state of operation. The hybrid motor is quite capable of consuming energy and generating the right amount of power at the same time. These moments of non-engagement will save the consumer money in gas cost every time the automobile is driven down the road.

In conclusion, there exist more logical advantages of owning a hybrid car which is an unstoppable growing trend and unconfrontational facts.

Toyota Avalon Review

The Toyota Avalon?s design was originally based upon the technology of the Toyota Camry. This four door, front wheel drive care became popular on the market, especially in 2006. The cabin of the Avalon is quite spacious and comfortable. They have added lavish high quality features including the leather trimmed seats with ergomanically designed controls. The perfectly tuned suspension and quiet engine complements the tranquil interior. It is currently vying in the market of all other full sized sedans and holding their own. In the past year, the Toyotal Avalon features all the latest technology in fuel efficiency, safety, and performance. The new models have the latest, but it is not extravagant in its styling. It is sleek and contemporary and gives the driver a more sophisticated look that one can not ignore.

It has been long said that a Toyota can be driven for over 100,000 miles and still keep on going and going. The Toyota Avalon is not exception to this rule. There has not been one Toyota Avalon out in the market that has been a flop. This is due to Toyota Corporation employing excellent marketing strategies and due to their high level of expertise when it comes to deciding what is right for the company. Toyota went from being Japan?s largest auto maker to America?s third largest and one of the best known manufactures in the world.

Part of Toyota?s quality is that if you are looking for replacement parts, you can go online now and search to find what you are looking for. Each certified Toyota Avalon part is designed to meet the exact requirements of the detailed Toyota user. Toyota parts are sure to give your vehicle a better quality ride, increased comfort and safety.

Toyota Prius Review

Concept vehicles are big in the world of cars. The Toyota Prius has the distinction of being the worlds cleanest and planet friendly vehicle. It has been given the honor of being the 2006 European Car of the year because of the standards that it set for manufactures when building their hybrid cars. Consumer Reports even reported that the Toyota Prius came in with a 94 percent owner satisfaction rating. Most of the current owners of a Prius would definitely purchase another one again, thus making Consumer Reports rate it as the most satisfying vehicles on the road.

So Just what make the Prius a step above the rest? The Toyota Prius is an astonishing Hybrid. The way Toyota uses technology is quite amazing. Instead of just turning a key to start the ignition, the Toyota Prius is started by pressing a round ?Power? button on the dash board. Toyota has incorporated an interactive touch sensitive multi-informational display screen that is mounted on the center console. This display screen has many functions from showing you fuel consumption, radio settings, climate control, and many other functions that are occurring within the vehicle.

The Toyota Prius carries a rating of Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emission Vehicle, making it the cleanest emission production car on the road today. The Prius boasts an average of 90 percent more cleaner air than the average car on the road today. It employs the Hybrid Synergy Drive technology making it the leading vehicle in the industry of Hybrid technology. It offers a seamless integration of gas engine and emissions free electric motor allowing it to achieve amazing fuel economy. This makes it the best choice for the environment and the consumer.

Hybrids have become more and more popular in the world because of its dramatically increased fuel efficiency; especially with the rising cost of gas prices all over the world. People tend to flock to cars that will give them the most bang for their buck and are environmentally friendly. This make the Toyota Prius the most environmentally friendly care on the road today and thus, will be a good choice for you, your family, and the environment.

GM X platform

There have been two X-body automobile platforms from General Motors. All X-bodies were small entry-level models.


Rear wheel drive

The rear-wheel drive X-body underpinned the Chevrolet Nova and similar cars of the late 1960s and 1970s. It was also the basis for the Cadillac Seville's K platform. The wheelbase was 111 in and many components were shared with the contemporary F platform.

Applications:

* Buick Apollo (1973–1974; 1975 sedan only)
* Buick Skylark (1975 coupe only; 1976–1979)
* Chevrolet Nova (1968–1979)
* Oldsmobile Omega (1973–1979)
* Pontiac Ventura (1971–1977)
* Pontiac Phoenix (1977–1979)

1968–1974 GM X-bodies were rear steer (with the steering linkage behind the engine crossmember) whereas 1975–1979 models were front steer (with the steering linkage forward of the engine crossmember.) Note: "Rear steer" does not mean that the rear wheels steered the vehicle. It strictly relates to the position of steering components in relation to the engine crossmember. No station wagons were produced on the X-body platform. (Rival Chrysler produced a station wagon based on their Dodge Aspen/Plymouth Volare compacts.)


Front wheel drive

The front-wheel drive X-body was used for compact cars from 1980 to 1985. The X-body program was widely considered a failure at the time, but the derivative GM A platform, which was introduced in 1982, continued for over a decade. Interestingly, only the Skylark name was carried over to the next generation of GM compact cars, the N-body. The Citation was succeeded by the Chevrolet Corsica on the compact L-body for 1987.

Vehicles using the X-body include:

* 1980-1984 Oldsmobile Omega
* 1980-1984 Pontiac Phoenix
* 1980-1985 Buick Skylark
* 1980-1985 Chevrolet Citation


Braking problems

NHTSA sued General Motors Corporation over the safety of their X platform family (United States v. General Motors, 841 F.2d 400 (D.C. Cir. 1988)).

The cars were initially designed to be five-passenger models, with bucket seats and lever actuated parking brakes. However, a decision was made late in the design cycle to broaden the cars' purchasing appeal by offering six-passenger models with bench seats. This necessitated a change from a parking brake lever (mounted between the seats) to a parking brake pedal. The pedal, however, did not have enough leverage to apply sufficient pressure to the rear brakes to hold the car on an incline.

Without enough time to redesign the braking system, the decision was made simply to use brake linings with a higher coefficient of friction instead, to hold the car with the pressure that could be applied through the parking brake pedal. However, this in turn had an undesirable effect; the increase in friction of the rear brakes, along with the excess forward weight distribution of a front wheel drive car, led to a tendency for the rear wheels to lock up under braking, which led to the rear of the car slewing sideways and loss of directional control and/or spinning (see oversteer).

The Court of Appeals eventually ruled against NHTSA and for GM, however, on the grounds that NHTSA's case for performance failure was based only on circumstantial evidence.

Buick Skylark 1953

The Buick Skylark (first use of the name for a production vehicle) on one of three specialty convertibles produced in 1953 by General Motors; the other two were the Oldsmobile Fiesta and the Cadillac Eldorado. All three were limited production vehicles promoting General Motors' design leadership. Of the three, the Skylark had the most successful production run with 1,690 produced. This was considered quite an amazing sales feat, for the car had a list price in 1953 of slightly in excess of US$5,000. However, many languished in dealer showrooms and were sold at discount.

All 1,690 regular-production Skylarks built in 1953 (and all in 1954) were convertibles. The 1953s were based on the 2-door Roadmaster convertible, having identical dimensions (except height), almost identical convenience and appearance equipment, and a Roadmaster drive train. In 1953, the model designation for the Skylark was 76X, while the model designation for the Roadmaster convertible was 76R. The few options available to the Roadmaster convertible buyer were standard equipment to the Skylark buyer, albeit the base price for the well-equipped Roadmaster convertible was only about US$3,200.

The 1953 Skylark featured V8 power and a 12 volt electrical system, both a first for Buick, as well as full-cutout wheel openings, a styling cue that would make its way to the main 1954 Buick line. Also making its way into the 1954 Buick line was the cut-down door at the base of the side window line that bounced back up to trace around the rear window (or convertible top). This styling clue stayed with Buick for many years and can be found on any number of automobile brands to this day.

The 1953 Buick Skylark was a handmade car in many respects. The stampings for the hood, trunk lid and a portion of the convertible tub were the same as the 1953 Roadmaster convertible (and Super convertible, model 56R). The stampings for the front fenders, rear fenders, the outer doors, and a portion of the convertible tub were unique to the Skylark. All Skylark convertible tubs were finished with various amounts of lead filler. It is not unusual to find a substantial amount of lead filler just behind the doors near the bottom of the window line. The inner doors of the Skylark were made from the inner doors of the 2-door Roadmaster and Super by cutting the stamping in half approximately parallel with the ground and then welding the two pieces back together in a jig at an angle that produced the necessary door dip (see photos of finished car).

Although there were many unique design features of the 1953 Skylark, one that goes almost unnoticed today is that the top and seating of the car were lowered a few inches below the Roadmaster and Super convertibles. This was achieved not by changing the frame, body or suspension, but by cutting the windshield almost three inches shorter and lowering the side windows and convertible top frame. To accommodate people without bumping their heads with the top up, the seat frames and steering column were lowered.

The wheels of the 1953 Skylark were true wire wheels, produced by Kelsey-Hayes, with everything chromed save for the plated and painted "Skylark" center emblem. Although this was high style in 1953, the wheels were heavier than the regular steel wheels, would require periodic truing to keep them straight and balanced, and required tubes within the tires just when tubeless tires were becoming the norm, as they were throughout the rest of the Buick line.

For 1954, the Skylark returned, although radically restyled [1]. This Skylark featured elongated wheel cutouts, the interior of which were available painted a contrasting color to the body color. For example, black cars could receive white or red wheel wells. The trunk of the restyled Skylark was sloped into a semi-barrel shape. Tail lights were housed in large chromed fins that projected from the tops of the rear fenders.

The car was now based on the all-new shorter Century/Special chassis and not the top-of-the-line Roadmaster/Super chassis, also all-new for 1954. However, it did share the Roadmaster and Century powertrain, the highest output in the 1954 Buick model lineup. This powertrain was an evolutionary improvement, but very similar to the 1953 powertrain.

The model designation for the 1954 Buick Skylark was "100", a completely unique designation. The short wheelbase cars were the Buick Special: series 40, the Buick Century: series 60, and the Buick Skylark: series 100, albeit a series of just one model. All production Buick Skylarks were built as 2-door convertibles. They had the same luxury equipment as the 1953 Buick Skylarks.

Like their 1953 counterparts, the 1954 Skylark had a number of unique sheetmetal stampings, but without the hand labor that went into the 1953 Skylark production. In addition to unique front and rear fenders with the elongated wheel cutouts, the 1954 Skylark had a unique trunk with its semi-barrel shape and huge, rounded chrome fins. Interestingly, the hood was also unique to the 1954 Skylark in a small way. The hood ornament was quite different from all other Buick models for the 1954 model year. However, this same hood ornament, although unique in size to just this one model in 1954, was to portend the design of the 1955 Buick hood ornament used on all models of that year.

The cost of the Skylark, mixed with the public's dislike for the restyle and its perceived step down in rank to the Special/Century series versus the 1953 rank with the Super/Roadmaster series resulted in poor sales and the car's demise at the end of the 1954 model year.


Engines

* 322 in³ (5.3 L) Nailhead V8

GM Iron Duke engine

The Iron Duke (also called the 2500, 151, Pontiac 2.5, Cross Flow, and Tech IV, though the decal on the air filter assemblies actually reads "4 Tech") was a 2.5 L (151 in³) I4 piston engine. All Iron Dukes were built by Pontiac beginning in 1977 and ending in 1993.

This 151 was also used by American Motors (AMC) starting in 1980, as the base engine option in the RWD Spirit and Concord, and continuing in both cars through 1982. The AWD (4x4) Eagle carried the 151 as standard equipment for 1981, and carried it midway through the 1983 model year. It was also available (as the Hurricane) in economy model Jeep CJs. AMC replaced the Iron Duke 2.5L I4 with a 150cid Inline-4 of their own, derived from their evergreen sixes.

The Iron Duke is often confused with Chevrolet's Stovebolt-derived 153 from the 1960s Chevy II, but the engines are entirely different - the Iron Duke's intake manifold is on the passenger side, as opposed to the driver side. One thing that both share is the Chevrolet Small-Block bell housing bolt pattern.

Applications:

* 1977 Pontiac Astre
* 1978-1980 Pontiac Sunbird
* 1984-1988 Pontiac Fiero
* 1982-1985 Chevrolet Camaro
* 1985-1990 Chevrolet Astro
* 1985-1990 GMC Safari
* Chevrolet Celebrity
* Chevrolet S-10
* Chevrolet S-10 Blazer
* GMC Sonoma
* GMC S-15 Jimmy
* Chevrolet Monza
* Buick Skylark
* Buick Skyhawk
* Buick Century
* Pontiac 6000
* 1985-1991 Pontiac Grand Am
* Oldsmobile Ciera
* Oldsmobile Omega
* AMC Concord/Spirit (1980-82)
* Eagle (1981-83)
* Jeep CJ (1980-83)
* Grumman LLV United States Postal Service delivery vehicle

Turbos at High Altitudes

A turbocharger helps at high altitudes, where the air is less dense. Normal engines will experience reduced power at high altitudes because for each stroke of the piston, the engine will get a smaller mass of air. A turbocharged engine may also have reduced power, but the reduction will be less dramatic because the thinner air is easier for the turbocharger to pump.

Older cars with carburetors automatically increase the fuel rate to match the increased airflow going into the cylinders. Modern cars with fuel injection will also do this to a point. The fuel-injection system relies on oxygen sensors in the exhaust to determine if the air-to-fuel ratio is correct, so these systems will automatically increase the fuel flow if a turbo is added.

If a turbocharger with too much boost is added to a fuel-injected car, the system may not provide enough fuel -- either the software programmed into the controller will not allow it, or the pump and injectors are not capable of supplying it. In this case, other modifications will have to be made to get the maximum benefit from the turbocharger.

Diesel Performance

If you were to modify a gas engine for performance, you would be required to install a different camshaft, bore out the cylinders to increase displacement, install high compression pistons and heads, increase fuel intake capability by installing a larger carburetor or injection system, adding a turbo charger or supercharger, adding a chip, and enlarging the exhaust system.

But then you are still restricted by emission control systems. On the other hand, diesel trucks and cars are mostly turbo charged, and they already run at a higher compression ratio. Whereas on the gas vehicles you would have to make those changes. If you were to make those changes to a gas engine you would truly have a ground pounding beast, but would lose every day drive ability.

The Diesels on the other hand are nice to drive around even with considerable modification. With a cold air intake, a chip, more efficient injectors, and a more open exhaust system, the diesels are still a nice ride, but when you really give it the gas, all heck breaks loose. There is enormous power without reducing drive ability.

Because of the nature of diesel engines they are designed from the factory to withstand much higher compression ratios than a gas engine. The diesel fuel combusts when it is compressed to a certain point whether or not there is optimum air. By simply shooting more fuel into the combustion chamber you can make more power. When you then improve the air ratio & timing of the fuel - you can make dramatic power and also improve engine efficiency. Gasoline
requires a spark to ignite it & must have the appropriate mixture of air to burn properly. There is also a lot more energy in a given amount of diesel fuel than in an equal amount of gasoline.

I will now break down the most popular modifications and explain their benefits.

1. A cold air intake is sealed away from the hot engine air, and is
located where it can take in more air. Cold air intakes are equipped with a filter that can take in up to 300% more air. Cold air takes up less space. So there can be more air, more air helps to burn all the fuel, thus giving more power and better fuel economy.

2. Chips make alterations to how the fuel is delivered to the engine, making it more efficient and more powerful.

3. A bigger exhaust or a mandrel bent exhaust (keeps the tube round, and the size constant) improves exhaust flow. Getting exhaust away from the engine is just as important in combustion as getting air into the engine. There are exhausts now that will even vacuum exhaust away from the engine, making it so that the engine doesn’t have to do that work.

All of these modifications add to the fuel economy of the diesel engine, and will over time actually pay for themselves in gas savings, and will continue for years after they are paid for to keep your money in your pocket. Diesels are the wave of the future and more and more economy vehicles are being produced in diesel versions because they are capable of so much better economy.

Detonation, Knock, and Pre-Ignition 101

As you probably have already figured out, detonation (aka "knock") is a big issue in the world of forced induction. You probably know that detonation is a bad thing, and that by adding a supercharger (or any forced induction power adder), you must take additional measures to avoid detonation, especially if your engine has other modifications. Normally the simple solution to stop detonation is to run higher octane fuel... but before we get ahead of ourselves, let's start from the beginning.

What is detonation / knock?

Under normal conditions, the combusting air and fuel mixture inside the combustion chamber ignites in a controlled manner. The mixture is ignited by the spark, normally in the center of the cylinder, and a flame front moves from the spark towards the outside of the cylinder in a contolled burn. Detonation occurs when air and fuel that is ahead of the flame front ignites before the flame front arrives because it becomes overheated. Under these conditions, the combustion becomes uncontrolled and sporadic and often produces a pinging noise, or a "knock" noise when the conditions become worse.

So far, detonation sounds cool... why is it bad?

Detonation is definitely not cool. Detonation causes sudden pressure changes in the cylinder, and extreme temperature spikes that can be very damaging on engine pistons, rings, rods, gaskets, bearings, and even the cylinder heads. Even the best engine components cannot withstand severe detonation for more than a few seconds at a time. More severe detonation obviously leads to more severe forms of engine damage. If there is enough heat and pressure in the combustion chamber, detonation can begin to occur before the spark plug even fires, which would normally initiate the combustion. Under these circumstances, known as "pre-ignition", the piston may be travelling up towards a wave of compressed, exploding gas. These are the worst kinds of detonation conditions, and can bend con-rods and destroy pistons.

What causes detonation?

Detonation occurs when several conditions / factors inside the combustion chamber exist at the same time. Increased compression, high temperatures, lean fuel/air mixture, advanced ignition timing, and lower octane fuels are all factors that PROMOTE detonation conditions. The good news is that, because there are so many factors in play, you can always find a way to eliminate detonation if it exists.

So, where do superchargers fit in?

A supercharger increases the amount of air inside the combustion chamber, which in turn increases the compression inside the combustion chamber. Along with increased compression comes higher temperatures and higher pressures, which as we know, tend to increase the chances that some form of detonation will occur. In order to compensate for the increased compression and heat, we must change one or more of the other factors / conditions to move us away from our detonation threshhold. Tuning the supercharger system to the engine in this way for maximum performance without detonation is something that supercharger manufactuers do so, chances are, you won't have to worry about it unless you do other modifications to your engine that place you closer to your detonation threshhold.

How do I get rid of it?

The two most common tricks used by supercharger manufactuers and engine tuners looking to obtain maximum performance without detonation is 1. use higher octane fuel, and 2. retard the ignition timing.

Higher octane fuel burns more controllably and is not as likely to combust before the flame front. This is why racing engines use 100+ octane gasoline. The ONLY benefit of racing gasoline is that it moves you away from the detonation threshhold, which allows you to be more aggressive with power producing factors - i.e. raise compression, advance timing, etc. This is why you'll be disappointed if you put racing gasoline in your mom's bone-stock '82 Toyota Cressida thinking you'll turn it into a race car. If you don't have detonation, the increased octane will do you no good. For cars designed for daily street driving, you obviously won't want to fill up with 100+ octane fuel every week at the tune of 5 bucks a gallon. This is why supercharger manufactuers tune their supercharger systems to run properly without detonation on 91 octane fuel - aka "premium" at your local gas station (in some states premium gasoline is around 93 octane).

Retarding the ignition timing will delay the timing of the spark, which also moves you away from your detonation threshhold. Most popular "power programmers" or "chips" increase engine power by advancing the ignition timing, and requiring you to run a higher octane fuel to avoid detonation. These work great, except the advanced ignition timing is NOT compatible with most superchargers, unless you're happy to run 100 octane fuel. In fact, many supercharger systems include an "ignition boost retard" that retards the ignition timing when it senses boost from the supercharger. This allows you to maintain stock performance while not under boost, yet still remain safe while the supercharger is making its boost (and power).

Another way to avoid detonation is to cool the incoming air charge to lower the temperature inside the combustion chamber. On a supercharged application, this task can be handled by an intercooler or by a water injection system (less common). The intercooler takes the incoming air charge and passes it over a series of air-cooled or water-cooled fins and ducts, thus cooling the air in the same way that a radiator cools your engine's coolant. Intercoolers are thus very popular in higher output supercharger systems, where detonation becomes more of a problem. Often times, the intercooler allows you to run more boost and also allows you to eliminate the ignition boost retard, meaning you'll notice increased performance, and still experience no detonation. Another way to lower the temperature of the combusting air and fuel is to run cooler heat range spark plugs. Many supercharger manufacturers will recommend cooler plugs for you supercharged engine.

Because lean condition (fuel starvation) also contributes to detonation, it is important to make sure that the fuel system (pump, injectors, etc.) is capable of delivering the increased fuel requirements of the supercharged engine. Often times, an otherwise perfectly tuned engine will experience detonation just because the fuel pump can't deliver enough fuel to the engine. Upgrading certain fuel components is almost always necessary when supercharging an engine. Most supercharger systems normally include the upgraded fuel components if they are necessary. If you are installing a supercharger on an engine with other modifications, make sure you consider the additional fuel requirements and compensate with larger injectors and / or a bigger fuel pump.

Some modern vehicles come with "knock sensors" that listen for detonation, and automatically retard the ignition timing to eliminate detonation. Although these devices are effective in preventing engine damage, they are not tuned for performance, so you should not rely on the knock sensors and expect your engine to run its best.

Conclusion

Altough detonation can be potentially damaging to an engine, a simple understanding of what it is, and what causes it, will help you stay away from your detonation threshhold. Pay attention to "knock" and pinging noises that come from your engine becuase they could indicate detonation inside the combustion chamber and should be dealt with immediately. If you're looking for a new supercharger system, don't worry too much about detonation - the manufacturers have designed the system for use on your stock engine, and if you follow the manufactuer's fuel recommendations, you will not have a detonation problem. If you ever do notice detonation, perhaps from bad (low octane) gasoline or extremely high air temperatures, just drive with a light foot until you are able to resolve the cause of the problem.

History of Petroleum electric hybrid vehicle

In 1898 Ferdinand Porsche designed the Lohner-Porsche carriage, a series-hybrid vehicle that broke several Austrian speed records, and also won the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. Over 300 of the Lohner-Porsche carriages were sold to the public. As a series-hybrid, a gasoline engine powers a generator, which powered electric wheel motors. A large and heavy battery pack acted as an intermediate load-leveling device.

The 1915 Dual Power made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker had a four cylinder internal combustion engine and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (25 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (55 km/h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.

There have also been air engine hybrids where a small petrol engine powered a compressor. Several types of air engines also increased the range between fill-ups with up to 60% by absorbing ambient heat from its surroundings.

In 1959 the development of the first transistor-based electric car—the Henney Kilowatt—heralded the development of the electronic speed control that paved the way for modern hybrid electric cars. The Henney Kilowatt was the first modern production electric vehicle and was developed by a cooperative effort between National Union Electric Company, Henney Coachworks, Renault, and the Eureka Williams Company. Although sales of the Kilowatt were dismal, the development of the Kilowatt served was a historical "who's who" of electric propulsion technology.

A more recent working prototype of the electric-hybrid vehicle was built by Victor Wouk (one of the scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt and also brother of author Herman Wouk ). Wouk's work with electric hybrid vehicles in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the "Godfather of the Hybrid"). Wouk installed a prototype electric-hybrid drivetrain into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was killed by the EPA in 1976 while Eric Stork, the head of the EPA at the time, was accused of a prejudicial coverup[5]. Since then, hobbyists have continued to build hybrids but none was put into mass production by a major manufacturer until the waning years of the twentieth century.

The regenerative-braking hybrid, the core design concept of most production hybrids, was developed by Electrical Engineer David Arthurs around 1978 using off-the shelf components and an Opel GT. However the voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Mr. Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited ~75 mpg fuel efficiency and plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed nearly 84 mpg.

The Bill Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV)[6] program on September 29, 1993 that involved Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle. The NRC cited automakers’ moves to produce hybrid electric vehicles as evidence that technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers questioned whether the “Big Three” would be able to move from the concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3.

The program was replaced by the hydrogen focused FreedomCAR initiative of George W. Bush's administration in 2001. The focus of the FreedomCAR initiative being to fund research too high risk for the private sector to engage in with the long term goal of developing emission / petroleum free vehicles.

In the intervening period, the widest use of hybrid technology was actually in diesel-electric locomotives. It is also used in diesel-electric submarines, which operate in essentially the same manner as hybrid electric cars. However, in this case the goal was to allow operation underwater without consuming large amounts of oxygen, rather than economizing on fuel. Since then, many submarines have moved to nuclear power, which can operate underwater indefinitely, though a number of nations continue to rely on diesel-electric fleets.

Automotive hybrid technology became successful in the 1990s when the Honda Insight and Toyota Prius became available. These vehicles have a direct linkage from the internal combustion engine to the driven wheels, so the engine can provide acceleration power. The 2000s saw development of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which can be recharged from the electrical power grid and do not require conventional fuel for short trips. The Renault Kangoo was the first production model of this design, released in France in 2003. However, the environmental benefits of plug-in hybrids depend somewhat on the source of the electrical power. In particular, electricity generated with wind would be cleaner than electricity generated with coal, the most polluting source. On the other hand, electricity generated with coal in a central power plant is still much cleaner than pure gasoline propulsion, due to the much greater efficiencies of a central plant. Furthermore, coal is only one source of centrally generated power, and in some places such as California is only a minor contributor, overshadowed by natural gas and other cleaner sources.

The Prius has been in high demand since its introduction. Newer designs have more convent