General Maintenance Tips For Your Car

A well maintained vehicle will never let down its owner. It will not desert you when you need it most. Here are a few maintenance tips for your car

Check the Engine Oil: To prevent the engine from deterioration, its important that the engine maintains the amount of oil it is programmed to receive. Negligence in doing so will lead to a deteriorating engine performance, meaning you'll get falling mileage.

Make Sure the Lights are working properly: It is important for the lights to be properly focused, for your own and for the oncoming vehicle's safety. Travel on low beam so that it does not obstruct your view instead of helping you along.

Have Suitable Tyre Pressure: The required amount of air pressure needs to be strictly maintained if your car is to get the right mileage and pick-up. Make sure pressure is not to high or you'll shorten the life of your tyres.

Radiator Water: If your engine uses water for cooling, take care to ensure that it is regularly changed.

Some other tips...
Get your vehicle serviced only at authorized service stations
Check the engine oil level once every two weeks. Also check the levels of coolant and water in the radiator and battery.
Always use genuine spare parts.
Avoid accelerating and braking abruptly.
Shut up the engine whenever you expect to wait.
Drive at a moderate speed of 45-55 km/h to maximize fuel efficiency.
Use air-conditioning only when necessary.
Avoid riding on the clutch pedal, and release the clutch pedal fully while driving.
Maintain optimum air pressure in your tyre to improve mileage.

How To Make your engine perform more efficiently

Try increasing displacement - the more displacement means the more power you’ll because it burns more gas during each revolution of the engine (Not very feul saving). Try making the cylinders bigger or by adding more cylinders. 12 seems to be the limit.

Modify the compression ratio – You can produce more power by increasing compression ratios. The more air/fuel mixture is compressed the more power it will generate, however the more likely it is to spontaneously burst into flame (prior to the spark plug igniting it). Higher octane gasolines prevent this sort of early combustion. High-performance cars generally use high octane gasoline – because the engines use high compression ratios.

Stuff more into each cylinder - you can get more power from the cylinder, if you can cram more air (and therefore fuel) into a cylinder of a given size. Turbo chargers and super chargers pressurize the incoming air to effectively cram more air into a cylinder.

Cool the incoming air – It get pretty hot when compressing air. You would like to have the coolest air possible in the cylinder because the hotter the air is the less it will expand when combustion takes place. An intercooler is a special radiator through which the compressed air passes to cool it off before it enters the cylinder. Therefore many turbo charged and super charged cars have an intercooler.

Let air come in more easily - As a piston moves down in the intake stroke, air resistance can rob power from the engine. Air resistance can be lessened dramatically by putting two intake valves in each cylinder. Some newer cars are also using polished intake manifolds to eliminate air resistance there. Bigger air filters can also improve air flow.

Let exhaust exit more easily - If air resistance makes it hard for exhaust to exit a cylinder, it robs the engine of power. Air resistance can be lessened by adding a second exhaust valve to each cylinder (a car with 2 intake and 2 exhaust values has 4 valves per cylinder, which improves performance - when you hear a car ad tell you the car has 4 cylinders and 16 valves, what the ad is saying is that the engine has four valves per cylinder). If the exhaust pipe is too small or the muffler has a lot of air resistance then this can cause back-pressure which has the same effect. High-performance exhaust systems use headers, big tail pipes and free-flowing mufflers to eliminate back-pressure in the exhaust system. When you hear that a car has "Dual Exhaust", the goal is to improve the flow of exhaust by having two exhaust pipes instead of one.

Try making everything lighter - The lighter the piston, the less energy it takes. Lightweight parts help the engine perform better. Each time a piston changes direction it uses up energy to stop the travel in one direction and start it in another.

Inject the fuel - This improves performance and fuel economy.
Fuel injection allows very precise metering of fuel to each cylinder.

Potential causes Dieseling

An automobile engine that is dieseling will typically sputter then gradually stop rather than continue running as if the engine was not switched off at all — the latter would usually indicate an electrical fault.


Potential causes

This condition can occur for a multitude of reasons:

* Built-up carbon in the ignition chamber can glow red after the engine is off, providing a mechanism for sparking unburnt fuel. Such a thing can happen when the engine runs very rich, depositing unspent fuel and particles on the pistons and valves. Similarly, non-smooth metal regions within the piston chamber can cause this same problem, since they can glow red. It has also been suggested that an improperly rated sparkplug can retain heat and cause the same problem.

* A carburetor that does not close entirely can contribute to running once the engine is off, since the extra fuel and oxygen mixture can combust easily in the warm piston chamber. Similarly, hot vaporized oil gases from the engine crankcase can provide ample fuel for dieseling.

* Incorrect timing.

* An engine that runs too hot or too lean may produce an environment conducive to allowing unspent fuel to combust.

* An idle speed that is too fast can leave the engine with too much angular momentum upon shutdown, raising the chances that the engine can turnover and combust more fuel and lock itself into a cycle of continuous running.


Potential fixes

Items similar to carburetor cleaners and carbon cleaners have been suggested as partial remedies for attempting to clean the piston chambers and valves of engines that run too rich.

For those engines that have sharp metallic edges, it has been noted that poorly milled heads and blocks can contribute to this problem, so having the rough spots smoothed may help.

For those engines that run too hot or too lean, verify that all mechanisms in place to cool the engine properly function as they should. Replace the thermostat if necessary. Clean the radiator. Verify that all auxiliary fans engage at their proper temperatures, and ensure that the thermostatic sensors on belt driven fans engage as necessary.

In the case that there is too much angular momentum, lower the idle speed if possible.

Whats a Petcock

Is a regulator consisting of a small cock or faucet or valve for letting out air or releasing compression or draining. Although petcocks are used in a wide variety of applications, the following passage will describe one of the most common applications of the petcock which is the control of gasoline on a motorcycle engine.

Most motorcycles have a fuel petcock valve mounted on or nearby the gas tank to control the supply of gasoline. The petcock typically has three positions: ON, OFF, and RESERVE. The reserve position accesses the bottom portion of the gas tank. The reserve position functionality of the petcock is especially useful on motorcycles because they often don't possess a fuel gauge.

When operating a motorcycle the fuel management process often proceeds as follows: Especially when regarding vintage motorcycles the petcock is set to the off position when the motorcycle is not being operated. This is to eliminate fuel overflow and leakage via the carburetor(s). Before starting the engine the petcock is turned to the ON position in order to provide gasoline to the fuel delivery system.

While operating the engine there will reach a point at which fuel consumption causes the level of gasoline in the gas tank to fall below that which can be accessed by the petcock in the ON position. At that time continued operation of the engine can be maintained. This operation is achieved by accessing the remaining fuel in the gas tank via rotating the valve in the petcock to the RESERVE position.

BMW xDrive

BMW xDrive is BMW's four-wheel drive system that powers the X3, X5 and 2006 and later xd and xi 3 Series and 5 Series models.

Instead of a 60-40 (rear-front) power split (which all millennium four-wheel drive BMW's exhibit — 325xi, 330xi, early X5) with power being cut to wheels which lost traction through DSC (Dynamic Stability Control), xDrive allows power to be split between the front and rear axles through use of a multiplate clutch located between the gearbox and the Cardian shaft. This setup allows xDrive vehicles to split power in virtually any way it pleases. If the car felt like it was in a threatening situation (note not an unstable one), xDrive would react immediately, often before the driver ever knew of its intervention, to alleviate traction and control of the vehicle.

xDrive is also closely knit with DSC. In the case that wheelspin still occurs while xDrive is or has been shifting power, DSC can brake independent wheels to regain traction. xDrive also helps in cornering. When the vehicle senses that it was about to understeer or oversteer the vehicle can independently cut traction to either of the front wheels or rear wheels to help regain stability and keep the driver on the road.

xDrive was one of the first technologies used to intervene before the driver was aware that the car was becoming or would become unstable. Its intervention is transparent to the driver.

Unusual four-wheel drive systems

Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, the French motor manufacturer Citroën developed the 2CV Sahara. Unlike other 4x4 vehicles which use a conventional transfer case to drive the front and rear axle, the Sahara had two engines, each independently driving a separate axle, with the rear engine facing backwards. The two throttles, clutches and gearchange mechanisms could be linked, so both 12 bhp 425 cc engines could run together, or they could be split and the car driven solely by either engine. Combined with twin fuel tanks and twin batteries (which could be set up to run either or both engines), the redundancy of two separate drive trains meant that they could make it back to civilization even after major mechanical failures. Only around 700 of these cars were built, and only 27 are known to exist today. Enthusiasts have built their own "new" Saharas, by rebuilding a 2CV and fitting the modified engine, gearbox and axle onto a new, strengthened chassis.

BMC experimented with a twin-engined Mini Moke in the mid-1960s, but never put it into production.

Suzuki Motors introduced the Suzuki Escudo Pikes Peak Edition in 1996. Though actual numbers were never released, this twin-engined vehicle is believed to weigh around 1760 pounds and produce nearly 1000bhp. The engine is a twin-turbo charged 2.0L V6 mated to a sequential 6-speed manual transmission.

Nissan Motors has developed a system called E4WD wherein the rear wheels in a car that is normally front-wheel drive are driven by electric motors. This system was introduced in some variants of the Nissan Cube and Tiida.

Most recently, DaimlerChrysler's Jeep Division debuted the twin engine, 670 hp Jeep Hurricane concept at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. This vehicle has a unique "crab crawl" capability, which allows it to rotate in 360 degrees in place. It also has dual Hemi V8s.

G60

The G60 is a supercharged straight-4 petrol engine manufactured by Volkswagen in the early 1990s. The engine displaced 1.8 L (1781 cc), had 8 valves (two per cylinder) and produced 160 PS (118 kW/158 hp). Although it was based on an existing engine, it underwent so many modifications it is usually regarded as a separate powerplant from others VW produced. It was named after the intricate "G-Lader" supercharger that it was mated to, this supercharger having a 60 mm wide displacer - hence the "G60" moniker.

The engine debuted in 1988 in the Corrado, which took 8.3 seconds to reach 100 km/h and had a maximum speed of 225 km/h (140 mph). In 1989 it was adapted for the Passat and the VW Golf Mk.II, in which it was capable of propelling the car to 100 km/h (62 mph) in 7.8 seconds, with a maximum speed of 216 km/h (134 mph). In the United States the engine was used only in the Corrado, and was dropped in 1992 in favor of the newer, more powerful VR6.

A low-production, all-wheel drive variant of the Golf G60 called the Golf Rallye was also powered by the 8-valve G60, but the engine was reduced to 1763 cc for sports homologation purposes. Power remained 160 PS. A 16-valve G60 engine was used in the ultra-rare Golf Limited, of which only 71 were produced, all with four-wheel drive. Power was raised to 210 PS (154 kW/207 hp), and the car could now reach 100 km/h in 6.4 seconds, reaching a maximum speed of 247 km/h (153 mph).

The G60 engine, like any supercharged and turbocharged engine, was sensitive to excessive air temperature, so performance very much depended on the weather conditions. Some models, like the Corrado or even some variants of the Golf Rallye, had a bigger, better-placed intercooler, resulting in increased performance over the standard intercooler and location.

Though there is no recommendation from Volkswagen, the compressor should be serviced every 100,000 km with an expensive repair likely.

A smaller version of the G60, called the G40, was used in the Polo Coupé supermini. The maximum power of this nervous little machine was 113 PS (83 kW/111 hp), propelling the car to 196 km/h (122 mph).

Centrifugal type supercharger

The centrifugal-type supercharger is an engine-driven compressor used to increase the power output of an internal-combustion engine by increasing the amount of available oxygen by compressing air that is entering the engine. This type of supercharger is practically identical in operation to a turbocharger, with the exception that instead of exhaust gases driving the compressor via a turbine, the compressor is driven from the crankshaft via a belt-, gear- or chain-drive.

Like any centrifugal pump, the boost provided by the centrifugal supercharger increases with the square of the speed, measured in RPM. This means that the centrifugal design provides little boost at low engine speeds, in some cases allowing air to pass back through the supercharger, such as during deceleration. On the other hand, the design is also the most efficient, besting designs like the Roots type supercharger and twin-screw type supercharger, which have the advantage of producing boost at any RPM.

Many World War II piston aircraft engines such as the Rolls-Royce Merlin and the Daimler-Benz DB 601 utilized single-speed or multi-speed centrifugal superchargers. Because high-performance aircraft engines were typically mated to constant-speed propellers and did not see a great variation in engine speeds, the poor low-rpm performance of centrifugal superchargers was not an issue. Turbo-supercharged engines, like some models of the Allison V-1710, combined a centrifugal supercharger with a turbocharger for better performance across a broad range of altitudes, using the engine-driven portion to provide a constant boost for extra power, while the turbocharger was used primarily to offset the effects of lowered outside air pressure as the aircraft climbed. Superchargers have since fallen from use in the aviation world, replaced by turbochargers of ever-improving quality.

Due to its design and lack of low-RPM boost it is often employed on near-standard compression engines. This means that it can facilitate airflow at higher engine RPMs, when most motors tend to have poor volumetric efficiency, without substantially increasing cylinder pressures at low- to mid-RPM operation, causing knock. This principle makes this type of supercharger ideally fit for a "bolt-on" type power adder, with no modification of the pistons and/or compression ratio necessary. Since gasoline must mix with air in a fairly narrow ratio to achieve combustion, the fact that centrifugals do not add much air at low and mid-range RPM's means fuel mileage is near-stock in the cruise RPM range. They appear to be most popular with cars that have a sufficiently large enough engine to provide adequate acceleration from a standing start without boost, while at the same time avoiding wheelspin. Then, the engine encounters breathing limitations in the mid-RPM range, often because it may only use two valves per cylinder. Centrifugals are also popular in places where the power-adder must be removed for frequent government engine inspections, as the exhaust system is unaffected (as it would be with a turbocharger).

However, detractors of the centrifugal-type supercharger (at least in street-driven automobile applications) note that it combines what some feel are the worst qualities of a turbocharger and a supercharger, since it doesn't develop appreciable boost at low RPM (Boost Threshold), but still uses up prodigious amounts of engine power to operate. Since it is crankshaft-driven and cannot benefit from a device like a wastegate on an exhaust-driven turbocharger to control its rotational speed, its boost threshold is always within a thousand or so RPM of redline. As such, the horsepower rating of the engine is greatly increased, but in a small part of the upper RPM range.

All supercharger types benefit from the use of an intercooler to reduce heat produced during compression.

Several popular makes of centrifugal type superchargers for automotive applications are: Paxton, Powerdyne, Procharger, and Vortech.

TVS SUPERCHARGER

Eaton’s new Twin Vortices Series (TVS) is a roots-type supercharger for a variety of engine applications that delivers more power and better fuel economy in a smaller package, for uncompromising, high-performance driving.

The TVS supercharger’s patented design features four-lobe rotors and high-flow inlet and outlet ports that greatly enhance thermal efficiency, deliver higher volumetric capacity, and enable higher operating speeds. The TVS supercharger is capable of running with a high thermal efficiency (up to 76 percent) across a very wide operating range.

The improvements incorporated into the TVS design allow for the use of a smaller supercharger, reducing the package size and weight of the system. The sizes range from 350cc to 2300cc per revolution, and cover engines from 0.6 liter up to large displacement V-engines. All TVS superchargers have a 2.4 pressure ratio capability and a thermal efficiency that exceeds 70 percent, which enables more compact packaging and greater output.

The twin four-lobe rotors feature 160-degree twists. The higher helix angle of the rotors coupled with a redesigned inlet and outlet ports, improves the TVS’s air-handling characteristics without increasing the overall size of the unit. The TVS improved noise and vibration characteristics eliminate additional noise-reduction treatments, complexity and system cost.

The TVS sets a new standard of boosting device performance and reaffirms Eaton’s leadership in the performance automotive market!

Roots type supercharger

The Roots type supercharger or Roots blower is a positive displacement type device which operates by pulling air through a pair of meshing lobes not unlike a set of stretched gears. Air is trapped in pockets surrounding the lobes and carried from the intake side to the exhaust. The supercharger is typically driven directly from the engine's crankshaft via a belt.

It is named for the brothers Philander and Francis Roots, who first patented the basic design in 1860 as an air pump for use in blast furnaces and other industrial applications. In 1900, Gottlieb Daimler included a Roots-style supercharger in a patented engine design, making the Roots-type supercharger the oldest of the various designs now available.

Out of the three basic supercharger types the Roots has historically been considered the least efficient. However, recent engineering developments by Eaton Corporation has resulted in a new Roots-type supercharger which yields a pump that is more efficient than all previous models. In addition, the Roots-type supercharger is simple and widely used and thus is invariably the most cost efficient. It is also more effective than alternative superchargers at developing compression at low engine rpms, making it a popular choice for passenger automobile applications. Peak torque can be achieved by about 2000 rpm.

All supercharger types benefit from the use of an intercooler to remove heat produced during compression. With a Roots-type supercharger, a thin heat exchanger is adapted to fit in-between the blower and the engine. Water is circulated through it to a second unit placed near the front of the vehicle where a fan and the ambient air-stream can dissipate the collected heat.

The Roots design is commonly used on two-stroke diesel engines, which require some form of forced induction as there is no intake stroke. In this application, the blower does not often provide significant compression and these engines are considered naturally aspirated; turbochargers are generally used when significant "boost" is needed. The Rootes Co. two-stroke diesel engine, used in Commer and Karrier vehicles, had a Roots-type blower but the two names are not connected.

The superchargers used on top fuel engines, funny cars, and other dragsters, as well as hot rods, are in fact derivatives of General Motors superchargers for their diesel engines, which were adapted for automotive use in the early days of the sport. The model name of these superchargers delineates their size; i.e. the once commonly used "6-71" and "4-71" blowers were designed for General Motors diesels having six cylinders of 71 cubic inches each, and four cylinders of 71 cubic inches each, respectively. Current competition dragsters use blowers of 14-71 design.

Checking Your Car Engine

The engine is what makes your car run. That is to say it is the most essential part of your vehicle. Checking your car engine helps a lot in maintaining an excellent performing engine.

To check this very significant auto part, stop first the engine. Let the engine oil be poured down to the oil pan. Then, pull the engine oil dipstick. Checking your owner’s manual will guide you in looking for the engine oil dipstick. Using a clean rag, any cloth or tissue, wipe it off and then. Insert it again down into its right place.

Pull the oil dipstick again. Try to check the oil level. It should be at the part of the cylinder where there is the "FULL" mark. However, it is still ok if it is quite lower. Proceed now with the checking of the oil condition. If it is not black anymore, it means you need to change it. It is still ok if it is slightly black. Any other oil color would definitely mean an engine problem.

In topping up oil engine, augment the same type and brand as you already have. This will prevent inconveniences in your engine.

Again, check the oil level. Just make sure not to overfill it. Then, return the dipstick and close the oil filler cap.

In checking automatic transmission fluid, different cars follow different procedures, so it is better to consult the owner’s manual.

Pull the transmission dipstick. Using a clean rag, wipe it off. Then, insert it back in its place.

Pull it again and go check fluid level. It should be within COLD marks if the engine is cold. If the car is warmed up, the level should be at the "HOT" mark. There is nothing to worry about if it is a bit lower.

Fluid condition must also be checked. It should be clean and transparent and has no burnt smell.

In topping up transmission fluid, it is essential to use only the specified one. You can always consult your owner’s manual or ask an auto shop to assist you in doing this. You need to be very careful in topping up transmission fluid because incorrect transmission fluid can destroy the engine.

Augment a small amount of the fluid through the dipstick pipe. For a few minutes, let the fluid to flow down. Then, recheck the fluid level. Make sure it does not overfill.

In your Acura car, Acura engine parts are the most essential auto part. Always check the engine to prevent break downs.

Honda FCX

Honda Motor Co. has finally unveiled its next-generation hydrogen fuel cell vehicle last Thursday with the announcement that it would begin producing a small number of vehicles that will be marketed in Japan and United States.

The new Honda FCX is made more sporty and sleeker as compared to the current version that has a top speed of 100 mph. It also has a longer range from 210 miles to 270 miles and of course a fuel cell power system that is 400 pounds lighter. Its auto parts such as air induction and others were also modified to function on hydrogen fuel.

The introduction of the FCX was right on timing since there is a growing concern for the greenhouse gas emissions not to mention the calls in Congress to dramatically raise fuel economy standards to minimize exhaust emissions.

Hydrogen vehicles provide lower net carbon dioxide emissions. Plus it can help end US dependency on foreign oil. Sadly this is easier said than done. The expenses that comes with building hydrogen fuel cells not to mention the absence of hydrogen fueling stations around the country creates a major obstruction for the fulfillment of this goal.

But thanks to companies like Honda which is at present is looking at an experimental home energy station that is making use of natural gas supplied to most homes to produce hydrogen fuel, hot water, heat, and electricity. According to Ben Knight, Honda’s vice president for research in the Americas, the best thing about hydrogen is that it can be extracted from a broad range of sources that includes methane or natural gas, bio-mass and renewable sources like solar or wind.

He further added that the next generation FCX is a “quantum leap forward”. The FCX will also be given a much higher price tag at least $500 more totaling to only a fraction of the approximate $1.5 million production cost of each Hydrogen fuel celled Honda.

Honda has already sold 30 units of their eco-friendly car worldwide. Mr. Knight also said that the production of the FCX model would eventually surpass the current fleet. Just to give customers a taste of what the FCX has to offer Honda has leased one to a family in California two years ago and last March another FCX was leased to a 17-year-old actress and environmental activist Q'orianka Kilcher. Honda has also allowed journalists to test drive two of its FCX. In addition government officials including top White House environmental adviser James COnnaughton were also invited to test drive Honda’s FCX.

The FCX when accelerating gives off a sound similar to a jet engine rather than a conventional gasoline engine. It is also has superior acceleration as compared to the current model that has a top speed of only 100 mph. Honda has also assured that the production vehicle will be similar to the concept showed last Thursday complete with the upgraded bumpers and revised interior.

Honda is not the only automaker that is conducting research on hydrogen vehicles; most major carmakers have spent billions on research alone. China is also investing heavily in hydrogen and if everything goes well for them they may even become the first country to adopt hydrogen vehicles in large volume.

It can be remembered that General Motors has said that it would introduce the world’s largest fleet of hydrogen-powered Chevrolte Equinox SUVs by means of its “Project Driveway” program in New York, Washington, DC, and California. And next week GM has scheduled a tour to take journalists on a 300-mile drive from its labs in Honeoye Falls, N.Y. to Tarrytown, N.Y., to update them on the progress of its hydrogen research. GM is hoping to build a 1000 vehicle fleet between 2010 and 2012.

Ford Motor Co. is also working on its plug-in electric hydrogen-powered vehicle with a range of 225 miles which will be called HySEries Edge. In addition Ford will have a fleet of hydrogen powered E-450 shuttle buses aside from hydrogen vehicles. DaimlerChrysler for its part will also be producing 100 hydrogen fuel cells to be distributed worldwide and that includes the 25 units destined for California. BMW will also be producing its own 100 Hydrogen 7 vehicles and plans to be leasing them next year.

How Extend The Life Of Your Car Battery

There are several strategies you can use to extend the life of your car battery and avoid a dead battery crisis. Regular maintenance of your automotive battery is a must, especially in extreme weather conditions. Remember over heating is bad. Check the electrolyte level in the battery. One of the easiest cleaning tips, is to make sure the terminals are clean. You can buy an cheap terminal brush and scrub off any corrosion on the battery terminals and cables. Sometimes a dead battery is nothing more than corroded terminals. Once they are clean, your car will crank right up. Car batteries also need to be recharged after deep cycle discharges and jump starts.
If you run an auto shop or other mechanical service, you will need a car battery charger to recharge your batteries. The time required to charge a car battery back to a full charge depends on the number of ampere hours (AH) depleted. Ampere hours are calculated by multiplying the number of hours times the number of Amps that the battery supplied to the load. For example, if a load was connected to a battery that used 7 Amps for 5 hours, the car battery supplied 35 Ahs. The recharge time would then be calculated by dividing 35 Ahs by the amperage charge rate of the charger. Once you are armed with this information you can make sure your batteries are fully charged and remain healthy.

If you are storing you batteries for a long period of time, such as a ski boat in winter. A trickle charger is highly recommended. These will slowly charge your battery and make sure it remains fully charged through the winter months. It is better to let the battery stay fully charged then try to recharge it in the spring. Fully discharging the battery will reduce its overall life.
By taking these simple suggestions, you can extend the life of your battery and hopefully avoid getting caught with a car that won’t start.

Engine Details of Mercedes CL 65 AMG

The outstanding qualities of the AMG V12 engine have won for it awards like the “International Engine of the Year Awards” in the “Best Performance Engine” category in the year 2004. The 450-kW/612 hp AMG power unit was proclaimed winner beating over 70 other competitors from US, Japan, and Europe.

In the manufacturing facility for the AMG engine the philosophy is “One man, one engine” which means that each AMG 12 engine is hand-assembled from start to finish by a single engineer following the strict quality standards impose by the Mercedes-Benz. The “one man, one engine” philosophy is documented by the engineer’s signature found on the AMG engine plate.

The twelve-cylinder biturbo engine found in the CL65 AMG features the latest technology from the world of motorsport. The highly flexible components and materials assured the continuous influx of power and torque even when operating at extreme temperatures. These components include high precision-balanced crankshaft that is created out from high strength materials; forged pistons made from special materials that are extremely resistant from pressure and temperature; and a more effective oil-spray cooling system with a distinct nozzle for each piston, plus some larger piston pins.

The major and big-end bearings are also made from high quality materials to counteract the pressure and the temperature more effectively. The charge cycle in the cylinder heads gets some advantage out from the optimized combustion chambers as well as on the extended opening times of the intake valves. Moreover, a modified oil pump makes sure that all the parts that need lubrication are supplied with oil even under extreme conditions. To further boost the performance of the AMG engine an engine oil cooler is also added in the front apron with the addition of an extra engine coolant radiator located in the wheel arch.

Redesigned charge-air cooler…
The charge-air cooler has also been modified with a low temperature radiator positioned in the front of the vehicle which was made almost 70 percent larger. The system functions on the precept of an air-to-water heat exchanger for an effective cooling of the intake air which are compressed by the turbochargers before they are made to enter the combustion chambers.

The extra surface area added for the low temperature radiator results in a 25 percent reduction in the intake temperature at full throttle and assures high power and torque output in any operating conditions regardless of the temperature outside.

The casing or the frame of the compressor and the turbine in both turbochargers together with the turbine and compressor wheels has been enlarged producing a maximum charge pressure of 1.5 bar.

The electronically controlled fuel supply with its new developed components functioned with a variable system pressure between 3.6 and 5.0 bar. The fuel pressure is also regulated intermittently in accordance to the required power and the temperature outside. The engine management system interprets the command from the accelerator and makes the necessary action.

AMG sports an especially designed Mercedes exhaust system…
The powerful sound of the AMG twelve-cylinder is guaranteed by the AMG sports exhaust system with two trim chromed tailpipes in the exclusive AMG V12 design. Similarly catalytic converters that has tri-metallic coating can provide a faster response from a cold start and offer an efficient exhaust-gas after treatment and an extensive service life. The CL 65 AMG also complies with the EU4 emissions standard as well as the emission requirements for the US market.

Here are the major data for the CL65 AMG

- Cylinder configuration/valves per cylinder – V12/3
- Displacement cc – 5980
- Bore x stroke mm - 82.6 x 93.0
- Compression ratio - 9.0 : 1
- Output kW/hp at rpm – 450/612;4800-5100
- Max. torque Nm at rpm - 1000 2000-4000
- Acceleration 0-100 km/h s - 4.4
- Top speed km/h - 250

The AMG Speedshift 5-speed automatic transmission and steering-wheel gearshift paddles
The driving power of the new CL65 AMG is distributed to the wheels by the AMG Speedshift 5-speed automatic transmission with AMG gearshift paddles and DIRECT SELECT gearshift. There is also an S/C/M button found on the centre console that enables drivers to choose the driving modes that they want like Manual, Comfort, and Sport driving.

The driving modes will also change the transmission characteristics and in turn alter the accelerator response and the spring/damper settings of the AMG sports suspension basing on the Active Body Control. The gears may also be shifted manually at any time by using the silver-colored aluminum shift paddles on the ergonomically designed sports steering wheel.

The AMG V12 delivers a potent torque of 1000 Nm calls for a powertrain that has been systematically reinforced. For the automatic transmission this will include newly developed clutch plates coated with high quality metallic plus the modified shift and torque converter lock-up logic. These are supplemented with the redesigned shafts, larger hub carriers and made even more durable steel spring links.

Turbocharger Tips

Turbocharger serves to pump more air into the engine boosting engine power without increasing the engine volume.
Due to its design, the turbocharger works at very high temperatures. Therefore, the requirements to the engine oil quality are much higher. Low quality, or old contaminated oil can be easily cooked under high temperature in the turbocharger causing it to fail.
Here are few tips:
- If it's not against manufacturer recommendations, use synthetic oil, or at least be very accurate with regular oil changes.

- When you stop the car after hard driving (speeding, accelerating, etc.) don't shut the engine off right away, let it idle for a while to cool down the turbocharger.

- Very long uphill driving under constant load may also cause turbo to overheat, try to avoid it if possible.

Turbocharged Direct Injection

The engine uses direct injection where a fuel injector sprays directly into the engine cylinder rather than the pre-combustion chamber prevalent in older diesels which used indirect injection. The engine is coupled with a turbocharger and intercooler to increase the amount of air that can get into the engine cylinders, thereby increasing the amount of fuel that can be injected and combusted. In combination, these allow for greater engine performance while also decreasing harmful emissions.

Other companies also use similar technology today, but "TDI" refers to these type engines. Normally-aspirated engines (those without a turbocharger) made by Volkswagen Group use the label "Saugdiesel Direct Injection" (SDI).

The reduced material volume of the direct injection diesel engine reduces heat losses and thereby increases engine efficiency, at the expense of increased combustion noise. A direct injection engine is also easier to start when cold, due to the reduced heat loss of the design.


Fuel

Like all diesel engines, TDI engines can run on petrodiesel or biodiesel. When converted properly, one can be made to also run on straight vegetable oil (SVO) or waste vegetable oil (WVO). Most conversions also make it possible to run on kerosene.

In terms of fuel efficiency, and clean emissions when run on biodiesel or SVO/WVO, TDI engines are among the best on the market. This is often overlooked because they do not drive on gasoline. The common Volkswagen 1.9L TDI, officially gets between 37-57 mpg for the automatic and 42-61 mpg for the 5-speed.

Newer TDI engines, with higher injection pressures, are less forgiving about poor-quality fuel than their 1980s ancestors. No. 2 diesel fuel is recommended since it has a higher cetane number than No. 1 fuel and has lower viscosity (better ability to flow) than heavier fuel oils. Many enthusiasts have converted their TDI cars to run on SVO or WVO by installing devices that pre-heat the oil to lower its viscosity, as the viscosity of unrefined oil is much higher than petrodiesel or biodiesel.

Volkswagen of America does not endorse the use of biodiesel in high percentages. They state that "[s]hould the use of substandard fuels, or higher level blends of biodiesel, damage your engine or fuel system, such damage cannot be covered under warranty." Thus a high-percentage biodiesel user who encounters fuel system problems can reasonably expect difficulty obtaining service under warranty if the biodiesel use is apparent to the dealer.

Changing the Fuel Filter

A vehicles fuel filter is used to keep the fuel that is used in the fuel injection system clean to avoid plugging fuel injectors and fuel pressure regulator. The fuel filter should be changed between 25,000 and 35,000 miles depending on driving conditions. First locate and identify the fuel filter, all vehicles are different so you might have to look around for it. Some are under the hood and others are under the car or truck like the one used in this example.

If you are unsure were your fuel filter is located then you can buy an online schematic at Mitchell1 Online. (Wear protective gloves and eyewear when replacing).

Locate and replace the fuel filter
Remove the fuel filter connection

Remove fuel filter connections from fuel lines. A small amount of fuel will leak out when connections are removed. Next remove the fuel filter mounting bracket bolt and remove filter.

Install fuel filter mount

Remove fuel filter mount from old fuel filter and install it on the new fuel filter. Make sure that the direction arrow is pointing in the direction of the engine. (forward in most cases)

Install new fuel filter

After the fuel filter mount is installed reinstall fuel filter. Make sure the sealing "O" rings are in place, in good condition and free from debris. Remount filter and reconnect. Start vehicle to check for leaks

Advantages and Disadvantages of Manual Transmission

Advantages

* Manual transmissions typically offer better fuel economy than automatics. Increased fuel economy with a properly operated manual transmission vehicle versus an equivalent automatic transmission vehicle can range from 5% to about 15% depending on driving conditions and style of driving -- extra urban or urban (highway or city). There are several reasons for this:
o Mechanical efficiency. The manual transmission couples the engine to the transmission with a rigid clutch instead of a torque converter that introduces significant power losses. The automatic transmission also suffers parasitic losses by driving the high pressure hydraulic pumps required for its operation.
o Driver control. Certain fuel-saving modes of operation simply do not occur in an automatic transmission vehicle, but are accessible to the manual transmission driver. For example, the manual-transmission vehicle can be accelerated gently, yet with a fully open throttle (accelerator pedal to the floor), by means of shifting early to a higher gear, keeping the engine RPM in a low power band. By contrast, in an automatic transmission, the throttle position serves as the indicator of how fast the driver wishes to accelerate. If the accelerator pedal is floored, the transmission will shift to a lower gear, resulting in high engine RPM and aggressive acceleration. The thermodynamically efficient combination of open throttle and low RPMs is unavailable to the automatic transmission driver. Fuel-efficient acceleration is important to achieving fuel economy in stop-and-go city driving.
o Fuel cut-off. The torque converter of the automatic transmission is designed for transmitting power from the engine to the wheels. Its ability to transmit power in the reverse direction is limited. During deceleration, if the torque converter's rotation drops beneath its stall speed, the momentum of the car can no longer turn the engine, requiring the engine to be idled. By contrast, a manual transmission, with the clutch engaged, can use the car's momentum to keep the engine turning, in principle, all the way down to zero RPM. This means that there are better opportunities, in a manual car, for the electronic control unit (ECU) to impose deceleration fuel cut-off (DFCO), a fuel-saving mode whereby the fuel injectors are turned off if the throttle is closed (foot off the accelerator pedal) and the engine is being driven by the momentum of the vehicle. Automatics further reduce opportunities for DFCO by shifting to a higher gear when the accelerator pedal is released, causing the RPM to drop.[citation needed]
o Geartrain efficiency. Automatics may require power to be transmitted through multiple planetary gearsets before attaining the desired gear ratio. In comparison, manual transmissions usually transmit power through one or two gearsets at most.

* Manual transmissions are still more efficient than belt-driven continuously-variable transmissions.

* Manual transmissions are generally significantly lighter than torque-converter automatics.

* Vehicles with manual transmissions are typically cheaper than those with automatic transmissions.

* Manual transmissions generally require less maintenance than automatic transmissions.

* Manual transmissions normally do not require active cooling, because not much power is dissipated as heat through the transmission.
o The heat issue can be important in certain situations, like climbing long hills in hot weather, particularly if pulling a load. Unless the automatic's torque converter is locked up (which typically only happens in an overdrive gear that would not be engaged when going up a hill) the transmission can overheat. A manual transmission's clutch only generates heat when it slips, which does not happen unless the driver is riding the clutch pedal.

* A driver has more direct control over the state of the transmission with a manual than an automatic. This control is important to an experienced, knowledgeable driver who knows the correct procedure for executing a driving maneuver, and wants the machine to realise his or her intentions exactly and instantly. Manual transmissions are particularly advantageous for performance driving or driving on steep and winding roads. Note that this advantage applies equally to manual-automatic transmissions, such as tiptronic.
o An example: the driver, anticipating a turn, can downshift to the appropriate gear while the steering is still straight, and stay in gear through the turn. This is the correct, safe way to execute a turn. An unanticipated change of gear during a sharp turn can cause skidding if the road is slippery.
o Another example: when starting, the driver can control how much torque goes to the tires, which is useful for starting on slippery surfaces such as ice, snow or mud. This can be done with clutch finesse, or possibly by starting in second gear instead of first. The driver of an automatic can only put the car into drive, and play with the throttle. The torque converter can easily dump too much torque into the wheels, because when it slips, it acts as an extra low gear, passing through the engine power, reducing the rotations while multiplying torque. An automatic equipped with ESC, however, does not have this disadvantage. Some cars, such as the Saab NG900 Automatic transmission, have a special mode for low traction situations.
o Yet another example: passing. When the driver is attempting to pass a slower moving vehicle by making use of a lane with opposite traffic, he or she can select a lower gear for more power at exactly the right moment when conditions are right to begin the maneuver. Automatics have a delayed reaction time, because the driver can only indicate his intent by pressing the throttle. The skilled manual transmission driver has an advantage of superior finesse and confidence in such situations.

* Driving a manual requires more involvement from the driver, thereby discouraging some dangerous practices. The manual selection of gears requires the driver to monitor the road and traffic situation, anticipate events and plan a few steps ahead. If the driver's mind wanders from the driving task, the machine will soon end up in an incorrect gear, which will be obvious from excessive or insufficient engine RPM. Related points:
o It's much more difficult for the driver to fidget in a manual transmission car, for instance by eating, drinking beverages, or talking on a cellular phone without a headset. During gear shifts, two hands are required. One stays on the wheel, and the other operates the gear lever. The hand on the wheel is absolutely required during turns, and tight turns are accompanied by gear changes. If the hand leaves the wheel, the steering will begin to straighten. In general, the more demanding the driving situation, the more difficult it is for the manual driver to do anything but operate the vehicle. The driver of an automatic transmission can engage in distracting activities in any situation, such as sharp turns through intersections or stop-and-go traffic.
o The driver of a manual transmission car can develop an accurate intuition for how fast the car is traveling, from the sound of the motor and the gear selection. It's easier to observe the lower speed limits—like 30 km/h and 50 km/h or their U.S. and Imperial counterparts, 20 mph and 30 mph—without glancing at the instrumentation.

* Cars with manual transmissions can often be started when the battery is dead by pushing the car into motion or allowing it to roll downhill, and then engaging the clutch in third or second gear. This is commonly known as a "push start", "popping the clutch" (in the USA) or Bump starting, which in the UK describes the action of suddenly releasing the clutch pedal after putting it in gear.

* Manual transmissions work regardless of the orientation angle of the car with respect to gravity. Automatic transmissions have a fluid reservoir (pan) at the bottom; if the car is tilted too much, the fluid pump can be starved, causing a failure in the hydraulics. This could matter in some extreme off roading circumstances.

* It is sometimes possible to move a vehicle with a manual transmission just by putting it in gear and cranking the starter. This is useful in an emergency situation where the vehicle will not start, but must be immediately moved (from an intersection or railroad crossing, for example). It is also easier to put a car with a manual transmission into neutral, even when the transmission has suffered damage from an accident or malfunction. Many modern vehicles will not allow the starter to be run without the clutch fully depressed, negating this advantage, but some manufacturers have begun to add a clutch start override switch so that this advantage may still be enjoyed when necessary.



Disadvantages

Many of the disadvantages of a manual transmission involve the driver interaction with the vehicle. While most of these can be overcome with practice and experience, they should be considered:

* Manual transmissions often require the driver to place their full and continuous attention on the road, which may be seen as a disadvantage. Some consider this an advantage, as it prevents the driver from other potential distractions like cell phone or radio use.

* Inexperienced drivers may place more of their attention on shifting the gears, potentially distracting them from the road surroundings.

* A driver may inadvertently shift into the wrong gear with a manual transmission, potentially causing damage to the engine and transmission, or the vehicle's body and its surroundings if the intended gear was reverse. However this can be offset with a lockout on the reverse such as found on many European cars.

* Manual transmissions require a learning curve as one must develop a feel for properly engaging the clutch.

* While it can easily be overcome with experience, manual transmission vehicles require good gas pedal application and clutch control when starting the car from a standstill. Too many RPM's causes the car to redline, whereas not enough RPM's upon clutch release causes the engine to stall, due to the lack of momentum required to sustain the engine.

* The smooth and quick shifts of an automatic transmission are not guaranteed when operating a manual transmission; such changes are dependent on the driver.

* Manual transmission places more work on the driver in heavy traffic situations since the driver is constantly clutching, in comparison with automatic transmission which merely require moving the foot from the gas pedal to the brake pedal and vice versa. Manual-transmission automobiles can also be slower to take off from traffic lights and roundabouts because of the subsequent gear changes required during the process of driving away from these.

* For a person with physical impairment, an automatic transmission might be the only available shifting option. The comparable systems for hand-operated clutch and brakes for a manual-transmission-equipped car are usable only by people with just lower body handicap. Retrofit of such a system also requires extensive modifications to the car.

* Vehicles with manual transmissions are more difficult to start from rest when stopped upward on a hill because the clutch must be depressed and the gas applied very quickly once the brake is removed to prevent slipping backward. However, this can be overcome with experience and/or the use of the handbrake.

* The clutch disc is a wear item and must be replaced periodically. While this is typically a labor intensive process that can be an expensive service, it shouldn't prove more expensive than periodic service to an automatic transmission in the long run

Increase Fuel Efficiency and Decrease Emissions with Atomization and Spray Technology

Legislation in the US, Europe and Asia demands progressive increases in energy efficiency, coupled with reductions in emissions of pollutants in gasoline, diesel and gas turbine engines for vehicles, aircraft and power plants. Combustion reaction, temperature and formation of pollutants are directly related to the distribution of air/fuel mixtures ratios throughout combustion chambers. The local mixture ratios are determined by vaporization of droplets in liquid fuel sprays. Evaporated fuel distribution is governed by drop diameter, velocity and trajectory as individual droplets traverse through airflow fields and deposit fuel in individual droplet wakes.

The design of atomizer nozzles, liquid fuel and atomizing air pressures and flow rates are important tools for controlling and changing breakup of liquid jets, spray angle droplet size and velocity distributions, The most efficient and energy saving combustion is with stoichiometric (perfect) air fuel mixture ratios where all fuel is consumed. However, these conditions create elevated temperatures that generate high formation of oxides of nitrogen – a major pollutant. The ideal fuel injection system requires pre-determined local air/fuel ratio distribution for maximum combustion and energy efficiency and minimum generation of pollutants. Spray characteristics, individual drop size and momentum are the most important factors for achieving the required local air/fuel ratio distributions.

Many years of research and development in spray science and technology have provided greater insight, knowledge and understanding of the physical mechanisms of breakup of liquid jets, formation of drops and spray characteristics. Atomizer designs include co-axial air assist, liquid and air swirl, pizo-electric induced fluctuations, effervescent bubble atomization, rotating cup and disk. Electrostatic charging of droplets allows deflection of droplets in flight and avoidance of deposition on surfaces. Sprays used in combustion and industrial systems have not been sufficiently optimized. By increased knowledge, understanding and control, optimum conditions can be prescribed to allow designs of atomizers, liquid and air flows that will result in significant increases in fuel and energy efficient as well as significant reductions in formation and emission of pollutants.

Anti-Lag System

Anti-Lag System, ALS, is a system used on mainly turbocharged racing and rally engines to eliminate turbo lag. It was used in the early days of turbo charging in F1 until fuel restrictions made its use unsuitable. Later it became a common feature in rally cars due to the mandated restrictors on the turbocharger inlet. Because of the pressure drop across the restriction, the pressure ratio for a given boost level is much higher and the turbocharger must spin a lot faster to produce the same boost as before. This increases turbo lag significantly compared to unrestricted turbochargers.

An ALS system requires an air bypass, and generally this is done in one of two ways. The first method is to use a throttle air bypass; this may be an external bypass valve or a solenoid valve which open up the throttle 12-20 degrees. This allows air to bypass the closed throttle and to reach the engine. The second method is to use a bypass valve which feed charge air directly to the exhaust manifold.

The throttle bypass/throttle solenoid system is combined with ignition retardation and slight fuel enrichment (mainly to provide cooling), typically ignition occur at 35-45° ATDC. This late ignition causes very little expansion of the gas in the cylinder; hence the pressure and temperature will still be very high when the exhaust valve opens. At the same time, the amount of torque delivered to the crankshaft will be very small (just enough to keep the engine running). The higher exhaust pressure and temperature combined with the increased mass flow is enough to keep the turbocharger spinning at high speed thus reducing lag. When the throttle is opened up again the ignition and fuel injection goes back to normal operation. Since many engine components are exposed to very high temperatures during ALS operation and also high pressure pulses, this kind of system is very hard on the engine and turbocharger. For the latter not only the high temperatures are a problem but also the uncontrolled turbo speeds which fast can destroy a turbocharger. In most applications the ALS is automatically shut down when the coolant reaches a temperature of 110-115°C, this to prevent overheating the engine.

An ALS system working with a bypass valve which feeds air directly to the exhaust system can be made more refined than the system described above. Some early systems used by Ferrari in F1 followed this approach, so does the anti-lag systems used in WRC today, which are even more refined with advanced computer control. Today this kind of system has reached such a refinement that it’s even possible to use the system in a road car. A recent example is the Prodrive P2 prototype. The system works by bypassing charge air directly to the exhaust manifold which acts as a combustor when fuel rich exhaust from the engine meets up with the fresh air from the bypass. This will provide a continuous combustion limited to the exhaust manifold which significantly reduces the heat and pressure loads on the engine and turbocharger. With the latest anti-lag systems the bypass valve can not only be opened or closed but it can actually control the flow of air to the exhaust manifold very accurately. The turbocharger is fitted with a turbo speed sensor and the engine management system has a map based on throttle position and car speed which is used to find a suitable turbocharger speed and boost pressure for every condition. When the engine alone can’t provide enough exhaust energy to reach the turbo speed/boost demanded by the management system, the bypass valve opens and exhaust manifold combustion begins. This not only reduces turbo lag, but it also allows boost to be produced at very low engine speeds where boost was previously limited by compressor surge or exhaust energy. With relatively high boost at low speeds, this makes the low end torque superior even to large naturally aspirated engines. The system also operates very quietly.

Whats a Turbo timer?

A turbo timer is a device designed to keep an automotive engine running for a pre-specified period of time in order to automatically execute the cool-down period required to prevent premature turbo wear and failure. After a period of driving when a turbocharger has been working hard, it is important to let the engine run at idle speed for a period of time, allowing the compressor assembly to run down in speed and cool from the lower gas temperatures in both the exhaust and intake tracts. At the same time the lubricating oil from the engine is able to circulate properly so the turbine won't burn the lubricating oil that would otherwise be trapped within the charger with the turbine rotating at high speed. With regard to modern automotive turbochargers, the need for a turbo timer can be eliminated by simply ensuring the car does not produce any 'boost' (during driving) for several minutes prior to the ignition being shut off.

Benefits of Engine Balancing

Balancing goes hand-in-hand with performance engine building. Balancing reduces internal loads and vibrations that stress metal and may eventually lead to component failure. But is it worth the time and effort for mild performance applications, everyday passenger car engines or low-buck rebuilds?

From a technical point of view, every engine regardless of the application or its selling price can benefit from balancing. A smoother-running engine is also a more powerful engine. Less energy is wasted by the crank as it thrashes about in its bearings, which translates into a little more usable power at the flywheel. Reducing engine vibration also reduces stress on motor mounts and external accessories, and in big over-the-road trucks, the noise and vibration the driver has to endure mile after mile.

Though all engines are balanced from the factory (some to a better degree than others), the original balance is lost when the pistons, connecting rods or crankshaft are replaced or interchanged with those from other engines. The factory balance job is based on the reciprocating weight of the OE pistons and rods. If any replacements or substitutions are made, there’s no guarantee the new or reconditioned parts will match the weights of the original parts closely enough to retain the original balance. Most aftermarket replacement parts are "balanced" to the average weight of the OEM parts, which may or may not be close enough to maintain a reasonable degree of balance inside the engine. Aftermarket crank kits are even worse and can vary considerably because of variations within engine families.

If the cylinders are worn and a block needs to be bored to oversize, the larger replacement pistons may be heavier than the original ones. Some piston manufacturers take such differences into account when engineering replacement pistons and try to match "average" OE weights. But others do not. Most high performance pistons are designed to be lighter than the OE pistons to reduce reciprocating weight for faster acceleration and higher rpm. Consequently, when pistons and rods are replaced there’s no way of knowing if balance is still within acceptable limits unless you check it.

If you’re building a stock engine for a passenger car or light truck that will spend most of its life loafing along at low rpm, your customer might question the value of balancing such an engine. But if a customer values durability and smooth operation, selling them a balance job shouldn’t be too difficult – and it will add some extra profit, too.

On the other hand, if you’re building a performance motor, a stroker motor or an engine that’s expected to turn a lot of rpms or run a lot of miles, balancing is an absolute must. No engine is going to survive long at high rpms if it’s out of balance. And no engine is going to last in a high mileage application if the crank is bending and flexing because of static or dynamic imbalances.

Campro engine

Campro engine is the first automotive engine ever developed by the Malaysian automotive corporation, Proton. The name Campro is short for Cam Profile. This engine powers the Proton Gen-2, the Proton Satria Neo, the Proton Waja Campro as well as Proton's future models. The Campro engine is aimed to show Proton's ability to make their own engines that produces good power output and meets newer emission standards.


Basic DOHC engine

The basic Campro engine coded as S4PH is a basic DOHC 16-valve 1.6 L engine that produces 110 bhp (82 kW) @ 6,500 rpm of horsepower and 148 N-m of torque. This is the engine that powers the Proton Gen-2. The S4PH engine can be fitted with Cam Profile Switching (CPS) and Variable Inlet Manifold (VIM) technology. Besides this 1.6 L engine, Proton has produced the 1.3 L version of the Campro engine.

Even though the S4PH engine seems to be quite powerful at higher revs, its performance is reportedly sluggish at lower revs and this is proven by driving the Gen-2 uphills where drivers who drive the manual transmission version have to shift a lot between 2nd gear and 3rd gear. This is due to its torque dip between 3,000 ~ 3,500 rpm where the torque decreases slightly before picking up back to the maximum torque at 4,000 rpm.

Before the engine is ready to be installed in the Gen-2 cars, Proton installed the engine in the Waja specialized for on-road tests.

Currently the Campro engines installed in the Gen-2 has none of the promised cam profile switching (CPS) and variable inlet manifold technologies. No date nor any information has been known as to when Proton will equip its models with the promised full-spec engine.

Another engine option for the basic DOHC engine is a 1.3L engine coded as S4PE. While the power output of S4PH engine can't be considered as impressive, the S4PE engine produces 94 bhp (70 kW) @ 6,000 rpm and the torque of 120 N-m @ 4,000 rpm, much more powerful than most 1.3L rivals, even with variable valve timing technology.

The bore x stroke dimensions for both engines are as follows:-

* S4PH (1.6L): 76 x 88 mm, resulting the displacement of 1597 cc.
* S4PE (1.3L): 76 x 73.4 mm, resulting the displacement of 1332 cc.


Campro CPS and VIM engine

In addition to the basic DOHC engine, Proton developed its own variable valve timing technology that works similar with other variable valve technologies such as Honda VTEC and Toyota VVTi, named as CPS (Cam Profile Switching) technology. The usage of CPS tehnology will raise the maximum power up to about 127 bhp and will improve the low-end torque to its maximum value which will maintain until about 5,000 rpm. The technology is said to be applied to newer Gen-2s and future models starting from the end of 2005, but currently the CPS technology is still under testing.

The Campro's Variable Intake Manifold technology is currently being developed by Robert Bosch GmbH, and is expected to make it's debut in the second half of 2007.


Campro GDI engine

Recently, Proton is developing their own gasoline direct injection version of Campro engines which will be used in the future. Currently, the Campro GDI engine is still under research and development, therefore very little information available for the Campro GDI engine.


Supercharged Campro engine

Recently, Proton has announced to collaborate with Kleemann, the company that supplies superchargers for Mercedes-Benz compressor models for the coming Proton Satria replacement model. Little is known about the engine, but the engine is rumored as a 1.8L engine equipped with a supercharger supplied by Kleemann. Mercedes-Benz usually sources its superchargers from Eaton Corporation.


Hybrid Campro engine

Recently, Proton and Lotus have announced their concept model of a Proton Gen-2 powered by a hybrid powerplant that uses the Campro engine. The concept model will be revealed during the 2007 Geneva Motor Show from 8 ~ 18 March 2007.

The hybrid powerplant system, which is known as EVE system (Efficient, Viable, Environmental) will be using the same S4PH engine as the one that powers the present gasoline version of the Gen-2, combined together with a 30 kW, 144V electric motor. The main purpose of the hybrid powerplant system is to provide a hybrid system that can be retrofitted to existing models, retaining the same powerplant and also eliminates the need to develop a completely different platform, like the Honda Civic Hybrid.

The EVE Hybrid System will have 3 key technologies:-

1. "Micro-hybrid" start-stop system - An integrated starter-alternator system is installed to switch off the engine automatically when the engine stops, for example at the traffic light. The engine will automatically restart when the gas pedal is depressed.

2. Full parallel hybrid technology - Combines the existing S4PH engine with a 30 kW, 144V electric motor, resulting in higher power (141 bhp combined), higher torque (233 N-m combined), lower emission (up to 22% carbon dioxide reduction) and better fuel economy (up to 28%). The system also includes regenerative braking system.

3. Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) - The CVT system provides an infinite number of gear ratios for better efficiency.

The combined power and torque for the powerplant system are as follows:-

* Max power (gasoline engine only): 110 bhp (82 kW) @ 6,000 rpm
* Max torque (gasoline engine only): 148 N-m @ 4,000 rpm
* Max power (combined): 141 bhp (105 kW) @ 5,500 rpm
* Max torque (combined): 233 N-m @ 1,500 rpm (limited to 180 N-m continuous)

General Motors XV8 engine

The all-new engine provides the power of a full-size, high-end V8, but has greater fuel efficiency, the width of a V-6, and the length of a four-cylinder.

With an aluminum block and head, the 4.3 liter XV8 has three valves per cylinder with an air-assisted direct fuel injection system and two camshafts in the block. Power ratings are 300 horsepower (224 kW) and 295 lb-ft (400 Nm) of torque.

Other features include variable inlet systems (currently the main feature of Chrysler's Magnum engines), cam phasing, and displacement on demand (first seen on the ill-fated Cadillac 4-6-8 engines), variable inlet valve timing (common to Toyota and Honda engines), a narrow 75-degree bank angle, twin oil pumps, and an integrated air compressor. A GM spokesman said this combination was possible, in its best form, because of the engine's clean-sheet design: there was no need to compromise new features to co-exist with existing designs. That was especially important for direct injection.

The XV8's compression ratio of 10.75:1 is achieved with regular gasoline.
Key features

The all-aluminum 4.3-liter XV8 utilizes a unique three-valves-per-cylinder combustion chamber configuration, supporting the optimization of an air-assisted direct fuel injection system. The configuration features an industry first: two camshafts in the block. The XV8 produces 224 kW (300 horsepower) and 400 Nm (295 lb-ft) of torque.

The air-assisted direct injection gasoline system was developed by Orbital Engine Corp. of Australia, and is integrated into three-valve cylinder heads and dual cams in the block. The three valve system (two inlet valves, one exhaust) provides more room in the combustion chamber for optimal positioning of the injector and the spark plug, vertical and nearly central in the chamber - positioned as they would be in a Hemi engine.

Having two cams in the block rather than dual overhead cams provides considerable packaging benefits and combined with the direct injection fuel system, contributes to the XV8's outstanding performance numbers. The clean burning also means that after-combustion pollution control can be milder.

GM's Displacement on Demand technology allows the V8 to shut down half of its cylinders seamlessly at predetermined times to significantly reduce fuel consumption without hampering performance.

The unique twin oil pump design allows the engine to run Displacement on Demand at idle, since the system and cam phasing system have their own dedicated oil pump, which provides enough pressure to deactivate the cylinders at idle and reactivate them immediately upon throttle engagement.

The use of a camshaft "phaser" separates the timing functions of the intake and exhaust valves. This is accomplished in the XV8 engine by having two in-block camshafts, one for inlet operation and one for exhaust. The camshafts are located in a vertical plane above the crankshaft and parallel to its center of rotation. The intake camshaft is the lower camshaft and is approximately in the center of the block. The exhaust cam is positioned above the intake. Because the intake camshaft rather than the exhaust is "phased," the XV8's camshaft drive provides the ability to better modify and enhance full-load engine torque characteristics. In the stratified combustion mode of operation, it can be used to increase the charge dilution by advancing the intake cam timing. The set-up reduces friction and fuel consumption, particularly at idle and part-load, and also contributes to the engine's outstanding low-end torque. Having two camshafts in the engine block with the ability to "phase" one of the cams is unique to GM.

"With the cams in the block," GM's Fritz Indra said, "the valve timing precision is better than with a DOHC configuration. The different heat levels with long belts and chains in a DOHC set-up always changes the valve timing."

The air-assist direct injection system requires port geometries that generate a minimum of "in-cylinder" motion when the system is operating in stratified mode. During homogeneous operating conditions, in-cylinder motion is required in similar fashion to port fuel injected engines. The inlet manifold design supports these design objectives to achieve maximum fuel economy. The resulting design also allows the engine to deliver a broad torque band suited to spirited driving styles, supports the peak power objectives, and fully accommodates the Displacement on Demand system.

The XV8 is unique not only in that it has two oil pumps, but also in that the engine's balance shaft doubles as the oil pump drive shaft. The former allows for such functions as cam phasing and Displacement on Demand at idle and the latter contributes to the engine's compact packaging.

Because the XV8 requires extensive hydraulic function, two oil pumps were used in a serial fashion. If the lubrication system was designed with the typical single oil pump, its displacement would have to be substantially increased to provide minimum pressure to the entire engine. The primary pump supplies low pressure filtered oil to the bearings, valve lifters and secondary pump inlet. The secondary pump acts to intensify the pressure for supply to the cam phaser and Displacement on Demand systems. In doing this, parasitic power consumption to the oil pump is minimized.

Because of packaging constraints, the oil pump drive was combined with the balance shaft assembly. To get the necessary 1:1 counter-rotation of the balance shaft, it is driven by a helical gear pressed on the rear of the crankshaft.

"The drive for the pumps is the balance shaft, which has to go opposite engine rotation at engine speed because of our narrow bank angle," GM's Alan Hayman said. "So we get the balance shaft basically for free and this is all packaged in the sump that bolts to the bottom of the block. That is unique. Also, placing the oil pumps at each end of the balance shaft helps to damp vibrations."

The XV8's air compressor is integrated into the engine assembly. "That's another unique aspect of the engine," Hayman said. "The air compressor is part of the engine assembly itself, not just a component bolted onto the accessory drive somewhere as a stand alone pump. It's integrated to the back of the cylinder head and all of the fluids are transferred through this interface. This avoids the requirement for the myriad of hoses that would have traditionally been required including the avoidance of having to run a separate air-assist rail."

Buick Small-Block

In 1961 Buick unveiled an entirely new small V8 engine with aluminum cylinder heads and cylinder block. Lightweight and powerful, the aluminum V8 also spawned a turbocharged version, (only in the 1962-63 Oldsmobile Cutlass version), the first ever offered in a passenger car. It became the basis of a highly successful cast iron V6 engine, the Fireball. The all-aluminum engine was dropped after the 1963 model year, but was replaced with a very similar cast-iron engine.


215

GM experimented with aluminum engines starting in the early 1950s, and work on a production unit commenced in 1956. Originally intended for 180 in³ (2.9 L) displacement, Buick was designated by GM as the engine design leader, and decided to begin with a larger, 215 in³ (3.5 L) size, which was deemed ideal for the new "senior compact cars" introduced for the 1961 model year. This group of cars was commonly called the BOP group or A-bodies.

The 215 had a 4.24 in (107.7 mm) bore spacing, a bore of 3.5 in (88.9 mm), and a stroke of 2.8 in (71.1 mm), for an actual displacement of 3533 cc. The engine was the lightest mass-production V8 in the world, with a dry weight of only 318 lb (144 kg). It was standard equipment in the 1961 Buick Special.

Oldsmobile and Pontiac also used the all-aluminum 215 on its mid-sized cars, the Oldsmobile F-85 and Pontiac Tempest. However the Oldsmobile version of this engine, although sharing the same basic architecture, had cylinder heads designed by Oldsmobile engineers, and was produced on a separate assembly line. Among the differences between the Oldsmobile and Buick versions, it was somewhat heavier, at 350 lb (159 kg). The design differences were in the cylinder heads: Buick used a 5-bolt pattern around each cylinder where Oldsmobile went to a 6-bolt pattern. The 6th bolt was added to the intake manifold side of the head, one extra bolt for each cylinder. This was supposed to alleviate the head-warping problems that came about on the higher compression ratio versions. Later Rover versions of the aluminum block and subsequent Buick iron small blocks (300, 340 and 350) went to a 4 bolt per cylinder pattern.

At introduction, Buick's 215 was rated 150 hp (112 kW) at 4400 rpm. This was raised soon after introduction to 155 hp (116 kW) at 4600 rpm. 220 ft·lbf (298 N·m) of torque was produced at 2400 rpm with a Rochester 2GC two-barrel carburetor and 8.8:1 compression ratio. A mid-year introduction was the Buick Special Skylark version, which had 10.25:1 compression and a four-barrel carburetor, raising output to 185 hp (138 kW) at 4800 rpm and 230 ft·lbf (312 N·m) at 2800 rpm.

For 1962, the four-barrel engine increased compression ratio to 11.0:1, raising it to 190 hp (142 kW) at 4800 rpm and 235 ft·lbf (319 N·m) at 3000 rpm. The two-barrel engine was unchanged. For 1963 the four-barrel was bumped to an even 200 hp (149 kW) at 5000 rpm and 240 ft·lbf (325 N·m) at 3200 rpm, a respectable 0.93 hp/in³ (56.6 hp/liter).

Unfortunately, the great expense of the aluminum engine led to its cancellation after the 1963 model year. The engine had an abnormally high scrap ratio due to hidden block-casting porosity problems, which caused serious oil leaks. Another problem was clogged radiators from antifreeze mixtures incompatible with aluminum. It was said that one of the major problems was because they had to make extensive use of air gaging to check for casting leaks during the manufacturing process, and not being able to detect leaks on blocks that were as much as 95% complete. This raised the cost of complete engines to more than that of a comparable all cast-iron engine. Casting sealing technology was not advanced enough at that time to prevent the high scrap rates.

The Buick 215's very high power to weight ratio made it immediately interesting for automotive and marine racing. Mickey Thompson entered a stock-block Buick 215-powered car in the 1962 Indianapolis_500. From 1946 to 1962 there hadn't been a single stock-block car in this famous race. In 1962 the Buick 215 was the only non-Offenhauser powered entry in the field of 33 cars. Rookie driver Dan_Gurney qualified eighth and raced well for 92 laps before retiring with transmission problems.

Surplus engine blocks of the Oldsmobile (6 bolt per cylinder) version of this engine formed the basis of the Formula One Repco V8 used by Brabham to win the 1966 and 1967 Formula One championship. No other American stock-block engine has won a Formula One championship.

Buick 215s have been engine swapped into countless sports cars including especially Chevrolet Vegas and MG sports cars. The engine remains well supported by enthusiast clubs, specialist parts suppliers, and by shops that specialize in these conversions.

The Buick 215 was used in a small sports car known as the Apollo from 1962 to 1963, and also in the Asardo 3500 GM-S show car.

Although dropped by GM in 1963, in January 1965 the tooling for the aluminum engine was sold to Britain's Rover Group to become the Rover V8 engine, which would remain in use for more than 35 years. GM tried to buy it back later on, but Rover declined, instead offering to sell engines back to GM. GM refused this offer.


300

In 1964 Buick replaced the 215 with an iron-block engine of very similar architecture. The new engine had a bore of 3.75 in (95.5 mm) and a stroke of 3.40 in (86.4 mm) for a displacement of 300.4 cu. in. (4.9 L). It retained the aluminum cylinder heads, intake manifold, and accessories of the 215 for a dry weight of 405 lb (184 kg). The 300 was offered in two-barrel form, with 9.0:1 compression, making 210 hp @ 4600 rpm and 310 ft·lbf @ 2400 rpm, and four-barrel form, with 11.0:1 compression, making 250 hp @ 4800 rpm and 335 ft·lbf @ 3000 rpm.

For 1965 the 300 switched to a cast-iron heads, raising dry weight to 467 lb (212 kg), still quite light for a V8 engine of its era. The four-barrel option was cancelled for 1966, and the 300 was replaced entirely by the 350 in 1968.

The Apollo sports car, also known as the Vetta Ventura, used this engine.


340

The 340 in³ (5.6 L) 340 was a stroked (to 3.85 in/97.8 mm) version of the 300. It had a two-barrel or four-barrel carburetor, the two barrel with 220 hp, and the four barrel with 11.0:1 compression, rated at 260 hp @ 4200 rpm and 365 ft·lbf @ 2800 rpm. It replaced the four-barrel 300 for 1966. It was produced only in 1966 and 1967, with the new Buick 350 taking its place after that.


350

Buick adopted the popular 350 in³ (5.7 L) size with their final family of V8s. Although sharing the displacement of the Chevrolet Small-Block engine family, the Buicks were substantially different.

The Buick 350 V8 had a 3.80 in bore (like the 231) and retained the 3.85 in stroke of the 340. It was introduced in 1968 and produced through 1980.

The major differences of the Buick 350 when compared to other GM V8's are, deep skirt block construction, higher nickel-content cast iron, external oil pump, under square bore sizing, 3.0" crank main journals, and 6.5" connecting rods. It is an extremely rugged and durable engine, and some of the design characteristics of the Buick 350 are found in modern GM engines such as the 231 V6, and Series I, II, and III 3800 V6's.

Of all the GM 350-inch engines, the Buick 350 has the longest stroke, which lends to making significantly more torque than any of the others. It also made the Buick 350 significantly wider - essentially the same width as the Buick big-blocks, which have the shortest stroke of the GM big-blocks. In fact, at a glance the buick 350 is commonly mistaken for the 455 engine due to the oversized intake manifold atop the engine. The Buick 350 also shares an integrated Aluminum timing cover as do most of the Buick small & big blocks that incorporates the oil pump mechanisms as well. Leaving the oil filter exposed to oncoming air for added cooling.

The Buick 350 was used in the Jeep Gladiator and Wagoneer from 1968 to 1971.

Toyota Variable Induction System,

Toyota Variable Induction System, or T-VIS, is a variable intake system designed by Toyota.

It improves the low-end torque of high-performance, small displacement four-stroke engines by changing the geometry of the intake manifold according to the engine rotation speed. The system uses two separate intake runners per cylinder, one being equipped with a butterfly valve that can either open or close the runner. All valves are attached to a common shaft which is rotated by a vacuum actuator outside the manifold.

The engine control unit allows vacuum into the actuator by powering a solenoid valve when the engine rotation speed is below 4200 rpm.Above this engine speed vacuum is cut off and a spring inside the actuator causes the butterfly valve to fully open. The theory behind the system is that in the lower speed band the velocity of the intake air can be improved because the intake runner cross section per cylinder is smaller. However, when the engine gains speed, the required air flow volume is more significant so the second runner is opened to improve the flow.

Toyota used the T-VIS system from the mid-80s to early 90s on its high-performance twincam engines, such as the 4A-GE and 3S-GE.

PRV engine

The PRV engine is an automobile petrol V6 engine that was developed jointly by Peugeot, Renault and Volvo Cars and sold from 1974 to 1998. It was gradually replaced after 1994 by another joint PSA-Renault design known as the ES engine at PSA and the L engine at Renault.


Engineering


Ignition timing

The original engineering work done on the V8 can still be seen in the resulting V6: its cylinder banks are arranged at 90° instead of the