Winter Car Maintenance

Few items to check to be sure you're not stuck out in winter:

1) Check your belts and hoses for wear, and replace any that are showing signs of aging.

2) Flush your cooling system, and replace with a 50/50 mixture of anti-freeze and water.

3) Clean your battery posts and terminals, and check the battery water level. If your car has battery clips (pretty standard on newer cars) instead of good terminals, consider switching those out. Also, if your battery is over 4 - 4 1/2 years old, consider replacing that now as well.

4) Check your heater and defroster to be sure they are functioning properly. If you notice your engine's temperature guage dips too much when turning on your heater, have your thermostat checked.

5) Make sure your tires are properly inflated. The cold weather will lower your tire pressure. Also, check the tire pressure in your spare tire, and make sure you have the equipment needed to change a tire if needed.

6) Keep your gas tank as full as possible. This will prevent freezing in your gas lines.

7) Check your windshield washer fluid. Avoid using water only, as it will freeze.

8) A decent tune up wouldn't hurt anything either.

Prepare an emergency kit for your trunk which includes a working flashlight (extra batteries are a good idea too!,) blanket, tool kit, jumper cables, ice scraper, gloves, reflective triangles or flares, a bag of hard candy, and a first aid kit. A bag of kitty litter comes in handy for icy situations, and a small snow shovel will help in heavy snow conditions.

If you become stranded for a long period of time...

a) Do NOT leave your car unless you know exactly where you are, and exactly where you can go in order to improve your situation.

b) Use flares or reflective triangles to draw attention, or a bright cloth hanging from your antenna will work.

c) To keep warm, use blankets, and depending on the amount of gas in your car, run the heater for 10 minutes or so every hour. Make sure your exhaust pipe is not blocked!

d) In heavy snow and ice conditions, leave a window slightly cracked to avoid getting sealed in.

e) Use that bag of hard candy in your emergency kit to keep your mouth moist.

Kia Rondo

Available as a 5- or optional 7-passenger vehicle with either a standard 162 hp 2.4l 4-cylinder engine or an optional 182 hp 2.7l V6 engine in two trim levels.

Standard features include: 16" alloy wheels, AM/FM/CD player, Air Conditioning, Power Windows and Door Locks, Front/Side/Full length Side Curtain airbags, 4-wheel Disc Brakes, ABS, Electronic Stability Control, Tire Pressure Monitoring System, LATCH, Child safety door locks, Tilt steering column, Front and Rear 12v outlets, Front and Rear Cupholders.

Options include:
Moonroof, Leather interior, Heated front seats, Cruise Control, Keyless entry, Infinity 10-speaker stereo.

Although Kia calls the Rondo a crossover, it is still a compact minivan that competes mainly up against the successful Mazda5. But unlike the Mazda5, the Rondo doesn't need to have sliding doors because of the larger Sedona having them. The Rondo is the cheapest minivan in North America, with a price of US$16,995.

General Motors XV8 engine

The all-new engine provides the power of a full-size, high-end V8, but has greater fuel efficiency, the width of a V-6, and the length of a four-cylinder.

With an aluminum block and head, the 4.3 liter XV8 has three valves per cylinder with an air-assisted direct fuel injection system and two camshafts in the block. Power ratings are 300 horsepower (224 kW) and 295 lb-ft (400 Nm) of torque.

Other features include variable inlet systems (currently the main feature of Chrysler's Magnum engines), cam phasing, and displacement on demand (first seen on the ill-fated Cadillac 4-6-8 engines), variable inlet valve timing (common to Toyota and Honda engines), a narrow 75-degree bank angle, twin oil pumps, and an integrated air compressor. A GM spokesman said this combination was possible, in its best form, because of the engine's clean-sheet design: there was no need to compromise new features to co-exist with existing designs. That was especially important for direct injection.

The XV8's compression ratio of 10.75:1 is achieved with regular gasoline.
Key features

The all-aluminum 4.3-liter XV8 utilizes a unique three-valves-per-cylinder combustion chamber configuration, supporting the optimization of an air-assisted direct fuel injection system. The configuration features an industry first: two camshafts in the block. The XV8 produces 224 kW (300 horsepower) and 400 Nm (295 lb-ft) of torque.

The air-assisted direct injection gasoline system was developed by Orbital Engine Corp. of Australia, and is integrated into three-valve cylinder heads and dual cams in the block. The three valve system (two inlet valves, one exhaust) provides more room in the combustion chamber for optimal positioning of the injector and the spark plug, vertical and nearly central in the chamber - positioned as they would be in a Hemi engine.

Having two cams in the block rather than dual overhead cams provides considerable packaging benefits and combined with the direct injection fuel system, contributes to the XV8's outstanding performance numbers. The clean burning also means that after-combustion pollution control can be milder.

GM's Displacement on Demand technology allows the V8 to shut down half of its cylinders seamlessly at predetermined times to significantly reduce fuel consumption without hampering performance.

The unique twin oil pump design allows the engine to run Displacement on Demand at idle, since the system and cam phasing system have their own dedicated oil pump, which provides enough pressure to deactivate the cylinders at idle and reactivate them immediately upon throttle engagement.

The use of a camshaft "phaser" separates the timing functions of the intake and exhaust valves. This is accomplished in the XV8 engine by having two in-block camshafts, one for inlet operation and one for exhaust. The camshafts are located in a vertical plane above the crankshaft and parallel to its center of rotation. The intake camshaft is the lower camshaft and is approximately in the center of the block. The exhaust cam is positioned above the intake. Because the intake camshaft rather than the exhaust is "phased," the XV8's camshaft drive provides the ability to better modify and enhance full-load engine torque characteristics. In the stratified combustion mode of operation, it can be used to increase the charge dilution by advancing the intake cam timing. The set-up reduces friction and fuel consumption, particularly at idle and part-load, and also contributes to the engine's outstanding low-end torque. Having two camshafts in the engine block with the ability to "phase" one of the cams is unique to GM.

"With the cams in the block," GM's Fritz Indra said, "the valve timing precision is better than with a DOHC configuration. The different heat levels with long belts and chains in a DOHC set-up always changes the valve timing."

The air-assist direct injection system requires port geometries that generate a minimum of "in-cylinder" motion when the system is operating in stratified mode. During homogeneous operating conditions, in-cylinder motion is required in similar fashion to port fuel injected engines. The inlet manifold design supports these design objectives to achieve maximum fuel economy. The resulting design also allows the engine to deliver a broad torque band suited to spirited driving styles, supports the peak power objectives, and fully accommodates the Displacement on Demand system.

The XV8 is unique not only in that it has two oil pumps, but also in that the engine's balance shaft doubles as the oil pump drive shaft. The former allows for such functions as cam phasing and Displacement on Demand at idle and the latter contributes to the engine's compact packaging.

Because the XV8 requires extensive hydraulic function, two oil pumps were used in a serial fashion. If the lubrication system was designed with the typical single oil pump, its displacement would have to be substantially increased to provide minimum pressure to the entire engine. The primary pump supplies low pressure filtered oil to the bearings, valve lifters and secondary pump inlet. The secondary pump acts to intensify the pressure for supply to the cam phaser and Displacement on Demand systems. In doing this, parasitic power consumption to the oil pump is minimized.

Because of packaging constraints, the oil pump drive was combined with the balance shaft assembly. To get the necessary 1:1 counter-rotation of the balance shaft, it is driven by a helical gear pressed on the rear of the crankshaft.

"The drive for the pumps is the balance shaft, which has to go opposite engine rotation at engine speed because of our narrow bank angle," GM's Alan Hayman said. "So we get the balance shaft basically for free and this is all packaged in the sump that bolts to the bottom of the block. That is unique. Also, placing the oil pumps at each end of the balance shaft helps to damp vibrations."

The XV8's air compressor is integrated into the engine assembly. "That's another unique aspect of the engine," Hayman said. "The air compressor is part of the engine assembly itself, not just a component bolted onto the accessory drive somewhere as a stand alone pump. It's integrated to the back of the cylinder head and all of the fluids are transferred through this interface. This avoids the requirement for the myriad of hoses that would have traditionally been required including the avoidance of having to run a separate air-assist rail."

Nimble Acura MDX is a station wagon, it's no SUV

The Acura MDX SH-AWD is a station wagon, albeit a pricey one with leather seats and every conceivable electronic device, including a "super-handling all-wheel-drive" (SH-AWD) system that improves turning precision by automatically varying power to the rear drive wheels in curves.

Ride, handling, acceleration:
The MDX gets excellent marks in all three categories. It drives, feels, handles and accelerates in the manner of a much smaller, tighter vehicle--on paved roads.

Head-turning quotient:
Flowing, elegant lines. I love its interior--rich, ergonomically sensible, comfortable--the perfect passenger cabin for a long road trip.

Body style/layout:
The 2007 Acura MDX is a front-engine, all-wheel-drive, mid-size luxury wagon with a rear lift-gate. It is a work of unitized body construction on a mid-size car platform.
Engine/transmission: The Acura MDX SH-AWD comes with a 3.7-liter, 24-valve, V-6 engine that develops 300 horsepower at 6,000 revolutions per minute and 275 foot-pounds of torque at 5,000 rpm. The engine is mated to a five-speed automatic transmission that also can be shifted manually.

Capacities:
There is seating for seven with the rearmost foldable seats suitable only for small people. Cargo capacity is 15 cubic feet with three rows of seats up and 84 cubic feet with second and third rows folded. The MDX can be equipped to tow a trailer weighing 5,000 pounds. Fuel capacity is 21 gallons of required premium unleaded gasoline.
Mileage: I averaged 20 miles per gallon in highway driving. My assistant averaged 15 mpg in city-suburban commuting.

Safety:
Impressive. Improved rear-end crash protection, side and head air bags, antilock brakes, and electronic stability and traction control make the MDX one of the safest wagons available in North America.

Price:
Base price for the 2007 Acura MDX SH-AWD with the sport and entertainment package is $47,795. Dealer invoice price on the base model is $43,326. There are no options for this one at this writing. Add a $670 transportation charge. Price as tested is $48,465. Dealer's price as tested is $43,996.

Purse-strings note:
It's an excellent, albeit expensive, wagon. Compare with BMW X-5, Buick Enclave, GMC Acadia, Honda Pilot, Hyundai Veracruz, Lexus RX 350 and Mercedes-Benz M-Class.

Complaints:
End the misleading silliness. Stop calling the Acura MDX and similar vehicles SUVs. They're not. They're wagons. The buying public has no problem accepting them as wagons. Automotive marketers need to grow up.

Buick Small-Block

In 1961 Buick unveiled an entirely new small V8 engine with aluminum cylinder heads and cylinder block. Lightweight and powerful, the aluminum V8 also spawned a turbocharged version, (only in the 1962-63 Oldsmobile Cutlass version), the first ever offered in a passenger car. It became the basis of a highly successful cast iron V6 engine, the Fireball. The all-aluminum engine was dropped after the 1963 model year, but was replaced with a very similar cast-iron engine.


215

GM experimented with aluminum engines starting in the early 1950s, and work on a production unit commenced in 1956. Originally intended for 180 in³ (2.9 L) displacement, Buick was designated by GM as the engine design leader, and decided to begin with a larger, 215 in³ (3.5 L) size, which was deemed ideal for the new "senior compact cars" introduced for the 1961 model year. This group of cars was commonly called the BOP group or A-bodies.

The 215 had a 4.24 in (107.7 mm) bore spacing, a bore of 3.5 in (88.9 mm), and a stroke of 2.8 in (71.1 mm), for an actual displacement of 3533 cc. The engine was the lightest mass-production V8 in the world, with a dry weight of only 318 lb (144 kg). It was standard equipment in the 1961 Buick Special.

Oldsmobile and Pontiac also used the all-aluminum 215 on its mid-sized cars, the Oldsmobile F-85 and Pontiac Tempest. However the Oldsmobile version of this engine, although sharing the same basic architecture, had cylinder heads designed by Oldsmobile engineers, and was produced on a separate assembly line. Among the differences between the Oldsmobile and Buick versions, it was somewhat heavier, at 350 lb (159 kg). The design differences were in the cylinder heads: Buick used a 5-bolt pattern around each cylinder where Oldsmobile went to a 6-bolt pattern. The 6th bolt was added to the intake manifold side of the head, one extra bolt for each cylinder. This was supposed to alleviate the head-warping problems that came about on the higher compression ratio versions. Later Rover versions of the aluminum block and subsequent Buick iron small blocks (300, 340 and 350) went to a 4 bolt per cylinder pattern.

At introduction, Buick's 215 was rated 150 hp (112 kW) at 4400 rpm. This was raised soon after introduction to 155 hp (116 kW) at 4600 rpm. 220 ft·lbf (298 N·m) of torque was produced at 2400 rpm with a Rochester 2GC two-barrel carburetor and 8.8:1 compression ratio. A mid-year introduction was the Buick Special Skylark version, which had 10.25:1 compression and a four-barrel carburetor, raising output to 185 hp (138 kW) at 4800 rpm and 230 ft·lbf (312 N·m) at 2800 rpm.

For 1962, the four-barrel engine increased compression ratio to 11.0:1, raising it to 190 hp (142 kW) at 4800 rpm and 235 ft·lbf (319 N·m) at 3000 rpm. The two-barrel engine was unchanged. For 1963 the four-barrel was bumped to an even 200 hp (149 kW) at 5000 rpm and 240 ft·lbf (325 N·m) at 3200 rpm, a respectable 0.93 hp/in³ (56.6 hp/liter).

Unfortunately, the great expense of the aluminum engine led to its cancellation after the 1963 model year. The engine had an abnormally high scrap ratio due to hidden block-casting porosity problems, which caused serious oil leaks. Another problem was clogged radiators from antifreeze mixtures incompatible with aluminum. It was said that one of the major problems was because they had to make extensive use of air gaging to check for casting leaks during the manufacturing process, and not being able to detect leaks on blocks that were as much as 95% complete. This raised the cost of complete engines to more than that of a comparable all cast-iron engine. Casting sealing technology was not advanced enough at that time to prevent the high scrap rates.

The Buick 215's very high power to weight ratio made it immediately interesting for automotive and marine racing. Mickey Thompson entered a stock-block Buick 215-powered car in the 1962 Indianapolis_500. From 1946 to 1962 there hadn't been a single stock-block car in this famous race. In 1962 the Buick 215 was the only non-Offenhauser powered entry in the field of 33 cars. Rookie driver Dan_Gurney qualified eighth and raced well for 92 laps before retiring with transmission problems.

Surplus engine blocks of the Oldsmobile (6 bolt per cylinder) version of this engine formed the basis of the Formula One Repco V8 used by Brabham to win the 1966 and 1967 Formula One championship. No other American stock-block engine has won a Formula One championship.

Buick 215s have been engine swapped into countless sports cars including especially Chevrolet Vegas and MG sports cars. The engine remains well supported by enthusiast clubs, specialist parts suppliers, and by shops that specialize in these conversions.

The Buick 215 was used in a small sports car known as the Apollo from 1962 to 1963, and also in the Asardo 3500 GM-S show car.

Although dropped by GM in 1963, in January 1965 the tooling for the aluminum engine was sold to Britain's Rover Group to become the Rover V8 engine, which would remain in use for more than 35 years. GM tried to buy it back later on, but Rover declined, instead offering to sell engines back to GM. GM refused this offer.


300

In 1964 Buick replaced the 215 with an iron-block engine of very similar architecture. The new engine had a bore of 3.75 in (95.5 mm) and a stroke of 3.40 in (86.4 mm) for a displacement of 300.4 cu. in. (4.9 L). It retained the aluminum cylinder heads, intake manifold, and accessories of the 215 for a dry weight of 405 lb (184 kg). The 300 was offered in two-barrel form, with 9.0:1 compression, making 210 hp @ 4600 rpm and 310 ft·lbf @ 2400 rpm, and four-barrel form, with 11.0:1 compression, making 250 hp @ 4800 rpm and 335 ft·lbf @ 3000 rpm.

For 1965 the 300 switched to a cast-iron heads, raising dry weight to 467 lb (212 kg), still quite light for a V8 engine of its era. The four-barrel option was cancelled for 1966, and the 300 was replaced entirely by the 350 in 1968.

The Apollo sports car, also known as the Vetta Ventura, used this engine.


340

The 340 in³ (5.6 L) 340 was a stroked (to 3.85 in/97.8 mm) version of the 300. It had a two-barrel or four-barrel carburetor, the two barrel with 220 hp, and the four barrel with 11.0:1 compression, rated at 260 hp @ 4200 rpm and 365 ft·lbf @ 2800 rpm. It replaced the four-barrel 300 for 1966. It was produced only in 1966 and 1967, with the new Buick 350 taking its place after that.


350

Buick adopted the popular 350 in³ (5.7 L) size with their final family of V8s. Although sharing the displacement of the Chevrolet Small-Block engine family, the Buicks were substantially different.

The Buick 350 V8 had a 3.80 in bore (like the 231) and retained the 3.85 in stroke of the 340. It was introduced in 1968 and produced through 1980.

The major differences of the Buick 350 when compared to other GM V8's are, deep skirt block construction, higher nickel-content cast iron, external oil pump, under square bore sizing, 3.0" crank main journals, and 6.5" connecting rods. It is an extremely rugged and durable engine, and some of the design characteristics of the Buick 350 are found in modern GM engines such as the 231 V6, and Series I, II, and III 3800 V6's.

Of all the GM 350-inch engines, the Buick 350 has the longest stroke, which lends to making significantly more torque than any of the others. It also made the Buick 350 significantly wider - essentially the same width as the Buick big-blocks, which have the shortest stroke of the GM big-blocks. In fact, at a glance the buick 350 is commonly mistaken for the 455 engine due to the oversized intake manifold atop the engine. The Buick 350 also shares an integrated Aluminum timing cover as do most of the Buick small & big blocks that incorporates the oil pump mechanisms as well. Leaving the oil filter exposed to oncoming air for added cooling.

The Buick 350 was used in the Jeep Gladiator and Wagoneer from 1968 to 1971.

Acura TL Type-S

286-hp. V-6 engine derived from that in Acura's flagship RL sedan. The performance-tuned suspension of the Type-S is potent, too, especially on one's bottom. The handling is as tight as the proverbial drum, but the ride is very hard.

Except for the front-drive layout, which means some torque steer on hard acceleration, the ride is the only serious downside of this car, and I'd suggest you not minimize it if you routinely drive long distances and/or on bad roads. If so, the more basic TL might be a better choice.

The Type-S gets a sport-tuned suspension setup, of course, as well as steering calibrated for higher effort and better ``on-center' feel.

In the Type-S, the automatic can be shifted with paddles located behind the steering wheel; in both TLs drivers also can shift manually with the console-mounted gearshift lever.

With four-piston Brembo brake calipers at the ready, the Type-S stops as well as it goes.

Acura also says the Type-S has its own high-flow exhaust system, but you'll hear little evidence of it unless you accelerate hard; at cruising speeds the engine is quiet.

The TL's cabin is well-insulated against noise. Acura credits ``active noise cancellation' for some of that. The system senses cabin noise through a microphone in the headliner and then creates opposite sound waves to cancel the noise, using the radio speakers.

The Type-S is offered in four variants, starting at $38,125 with freight: with a six-speed stick shift or the five-speed automatic transmission I sampled, and with or without high-performance tires, Bridgestone Potenza summer models.

Since the automatic transmission is a no-cost option, the price differences among the four variants are no more than $200.

A Lexus ES 350 will hit $38,000 as soon as the navigation system/Mark Levinson stereo package is added.

At least in pure horsepower for dollars, Infiniti has the edge in this class.

Not far behind in bang for the buck is Lexus' IS 350 Sport, also rear-wheel drive, listing for $36,420, and packing 306 hp.

Note also if you're not in a hurry to buy your near-luxury sedan that redesigned versions of the both the C-Class and Cadillac CTS are about to arrive. And note also that a new Accord due in the fall suggests that an all-new TL can't be far behind.

Acura's bestselling model, the TL, is not to be confused with the smaller and less expensive TSX, a sedan that shares basics with a smaller version of the Accord sold in Europe and Japan.

The handsome interior has a look that's all business, with a richly textured dashboard and door paneling, accented by carbon fiber and a dash of chrome trim and stainless steel pedals.

Luxury car shoppers also considering models like the C-Class, CTS and Lincoln MKZ might deem the TL a bit too understated, but those whose tastes lean toward BMW and Audi interiors probably will find the S-Type's to their liking.

The TL has a very good, though not perfect, safety rating from the federal government: five out of a possible five stars for frontal impact protection and five out of five for a rear-seat passenger's side impact protection, but four out of five stars for the driver's side-impact protection.

The tougher Insurance Institute for Highway Safety rates the car ``good' in frontal and side protection, based on its crash tests, but last week rated the TL (and a bunch of others) ``marginal' in the protection offered by its seats and head restraints in rear collisions.

Like Hondas, Acuras tend to score highly in owner surveys by Consumer Reports and J.D. Power and Associates that measure vehicle quality, while Acura dealers tend to do well in surveys of overall customer satisfaction with the sales and servicing process.

And Acura backs its cars with a better-than-average warranty of four years/50,000 miles, with an extra two years or 20,000 miles on the powertrain.

2007 Honda Civic CR-V EX-L

Head-turning quotient:
The Hyundai Santa Fe is borderline ugly. The Honda CR-V is strikingly handsome. If looks count for something, the CR-V is worth the extra money.

Body style/layout:
The Honda CR-V is a front-engine, compact wagon/crossover utility vehicle designed primarily for driving on paved and other improved roads. People who want a genuine SUV capable of driving in the rough should shop elsewhere. The CR-V has four doors and a rear lift-gate. It is available with front-wheel drive or all-wheel drive. There are three trim levels--base LX, mid EX, and upscale EX-L.

Engine/transmission:
All Honda CR-V models come with a standard 2.4-liter, 16-valve, in-line, four-cylinder engine that develops 166 horsepower at 5,800 revolutions per minute and 161 foot-pounds of torque at 4,200 rpm. The engine is linked to a five-speed automatic transmission.

Capacities:
There is seating for five in the CR-V. Cargo capacity with the rear seats up is 35.7 cubic feet; with rear seats folded, it's 73 cubic feet. Maximum payload, the weight of what can be safely carried onboard, is 1,127 pounds. The front-wheel-drive CR-V can be equipped to tow a trailer weighing 1,500 pounds. The fuel tank holds 15.3 gallons of recommended regular unleaded gasoline.

Safety:
Standard equipment includes side air bags for front-seat occupants, side curtain air bags with rollover sensor, antilock braking system, electronic stability control, traction control, and rigid body construction.

Price:
Base price of the 2007 Honda CR-V EX-L with front-wheel drive and onboard navigation with voice recognition and rearview camera is $26,800. Dealer's invoice price on that model is $24,914. Price as tested is $27,935, including a destination charge of $595. Dealer's price as tested is $25,509. Prices sourced from Honda and www.edmunds.com.

Purse-strings note:
The Honda CR-V is an excellent wagon/crossover utility vehicle surrounded by very tough competition, including the Ford Escape, Hyundai Santa Fe, Mazda CX-7, Pontiac Torrent, Toyota RAV-4 and Saturn Vue. You'd be wise to invest some time in comparison shopping.

Complaints:
The CR-V is an excellent wagon. But Honda needs to reconsider its pricing strategy for this model line. The reason is Hyundai. For example, the comparable front-wheel-drive Hyundai Santa Fe Limited has seating for seven and comes with a 242-horsepower V-6 engine, standard electronic stability control and a base price of $26,145. The front-wheel-drive CR-V EX-L has a smaller engine, seating for five people, and a base price of $26,800. The CR-V is smart. But considering its substantially lower price and substantially better warranty, the Hyundai Santa Fe seems smarter.
Ride, acceleration and handling: The CR-V is excellent in all three categories on the highway and in the city. It moves in and out of traffic easily, safely. It is wonderfully maneuverable on heavily traveled city streets. It inspires confident driving in any environment.

Lincoln MKZ 2007

The Lincoln MKZ is a mid-size luxury car from the Lincoln automobile division of the Ford Motor Company. The MKZ is the replacement for the 2006 Lincoln Zephyr. Lincoln revived the Zephyr name in the fall of 2005 as a platform mate to the Ford Fusion and Mercury Milan, to replace the cancelled 3.0L V6 version of the Lincoln LS as the mid-size entry-level Lincoln. Lincoln increased the Zephyr's engine size and power output, and changed the car's name to MKZ in 2006 for the 2007 model year. Sales of the MKZ began in September, 2006. The MKZ is also the first Lincoln to use "MK" on its car name.

The Lincoln MKZ's available THX II audio system features 600 watts of power and 14 speakers, including two subwoofers. It's a $995 option.

2007 Lincoln MKZ

Type:
A front-wheel drive five passenger sedan. All-wheel drive is available.

Retail price*:
$29,950 - $37,790

Engine:
3.5-liter V-6
263-hp
249-lbs-ft torque

Transmission:
Six-speed automatic

EPA mileage
# Front-wheel drive: 19 mpg city / 27 mpg highway
# All-wheel drive: 18 mpg city / 26 mpg highway

Performance:
Good New engine boosts power, and engineers tuned it for a very smooth, quiet ride.

Exterior:
Good Subdued and well crafted.

Interior:
Excellent:
Lots of nice amenities. Comfortable seats and easy-to-use controls keep the driver's eyes on the road.

Safety:
Excellent Standard side curtain airbags for front and rear passengers, anti lock brakes and electronic stability control and additional front passenger thorax airbags.
Pros: A luxurious sedan with excellent amenities and a smooth, quiet ride. Priced well against competitors.

Cons:
Engine tuning and lack of clutch-less shifting limit driving options.

Notes:
Drop the all-wheel drive and take one for a spin.

2007 Ferrari 599 GTB Fiorano

The new 599 GTB Fiorano is heir to Ferrari's glorious tradition of front-engine V12 dueposti, except that there was nearly a 20-year gap between the 365 GTB4, the Daytona and the recently departed 550/575M Maranello (1996-2005).

The 599 GTB Fiorano accelerates quicker (Road and Track reported a 0-60 mph of just 3.2 seconds and a quarter-mile estimated time of 11.2 seconds), corners harder and shreds the matrix of space-time faster than the F40. The 599's top speed is more than 205 mph, and it manages to stay ground-bound even without the F40's preposterous rear wing providing down force.

Powered by an Enzo-derived 6.0-liter 12-banger channeling a ferocious 612 hp through the new F1-Superfast gearbox (which cracks off gear changes in as little as 100 milliseconds), set up on a new semi-active suspension and with all manner of next-generation traction and stability systems managing the tiller of Newton's laws, the 599 feels like the ultimate man-macadam interface: a big, comfortable, gorgeous, richly appointed sports car with the soul of a racing machine.

The aluminum space frame has a chassis stiffness that's an almost inconceivable 50 percent higher than that of the foundry-cast 575M. All that substance comes at a cost, of course: This two-door weighs in at 3,722 pounds (roughly 600 pounds heavier than a Corvette Z06). And yet compared with the 599, ordinary cars of that weight division feel like sagging, over-full diapers.

Fully 85 percent of the car's weight is situated between the axles (as compared with 70 percent for the 575M). That gives this front-engine GT the low polar inertia of a mid-engine car, and yet there's still space for a surprisingly roomy trunk. The weight balance, meanwhile, is an optimal 47/53, front-to-rear.

Tarmac-warping Pirelli tires, which are, incidentally, staggered: 245/40/ZR19s in front and 305/35/ZR20s in the rear.

New electric dampers that monitor the road, speed and steering and adjust in a mere 40 milliseconds, using a system called SCM Magnetorheological Suspension. These babies employ a special fluid that changes viscosity depending on the electrical charge the computers impart to it. This semi-active system helps the tires maintain an instantaneous grip while cornering even over broken pavement, nulls out body lean and can go from velvety soft to harder than dragon scales with a flick of a knob.

An adjustable dynamics system that allows drivers to incrementally increase the ride stiffness, redline and gear-change speed, as well as raise the intervention thresholds of the traction and stability controls. The adventurous can turn them off altogether. New is the race-derived F1-Trac, which might be described as traction control with a Ph.D. in computer science. On the company's Fiorano test track -- where the name comes from -- a 599 with F1-Trac lapped an amazing 1.5 seconds faster than one with conventional traction control.

The new F1-Superfast gearbox, which adjusts shifting crispness -- the degree to which the car whacks you between the shoulder blades -- exactly to how hard you're driving.

A singular bit of aero styling is the 599's wraparound rear, close bracketed by flying buttresses (shades of Pegaso and Bertone's BAT cars). The 599 generates significant downforce (352 pounds at 186 mph). It is also practically immune to crosswinds.

Gonzo fast, awesomely cool, harder than Simon Cowell's heart yet with a deep sense of owner preservation, the 599 reminds me that I don't want much in a car, as long as I can have everything. And here it is, the world's best front-engine sports car.

Ferrari 599 GTB

Base price:
$260,000 (est.)

Powertrain:
6.0-liter DOHC V12
48 valve, with variable valve timing and variable intake geometry
six-speed automated gearbox
rear-wheel drive with limited-slip differential

Horsepower:
612 at 7,600 rpm

Torque:
448 pound-feet at 5,600 rpm

Max engine speed:
8,400 rpm

Curb weight:
3,722 pounds

0-60 mph:
3.2 seconds

Wheelbase:
108.3 inches

Overall length:
183.7 inches

EPA fuel economy:
12 miles per gallon city, 15 mpg highway
*Figure from Road and Track

2007 Hyundai Veracruz

2007 Hyundai Veracruz
Type:
A front-wheel drive large crossover SUV.

Models:
GLS, SE, Limited

Retail price:
$26,995 - $38,000

Engine:
3.8-liter multi-point fuel injection,
6-cylinder,
260-horsepower,
257-pound-feet torque.

Transmission:
6-speed automatic,
includes clutchless shifting
EPA mileage: 17 mpg city / 24 mpg highway
Estimated 12-month insurance costs, according to AAA Michigan: $687
*Includes shipping

Performance :
Sluggish acceleration and soft handling sap the fun out of driving.

Exterior:
A clone of the Lexus RX 350 does not stand out in a diverse and growing selection of vehicles in the crossover market.

Interior:
Offers lots of amenities and creature comforts.

Safety:
Standard side curtain airbags for all three rows,
anti lock brakes,
electronic stability control and electronic roll over mitigation.

The Veracruz fails to close the luxury gap in the crossover market in the same way the 2006 Azera did in the sedan sector. That car feels luxurious at a modest price. The Veracruz is just a photocopy of a photocopy.

It's a heavily loaded knockoff that doesn't hold its own against similarly priced crossovers such as the Honda Pilot, the Toyota Highlander and the Saturn Outlook. Those are the real competitors, not the Lexus RX 350.

Toyota 4A-GZE engine

The 4A-GZE (produced in various forms from 1986 through 1995) was the supercharged version. Based on the same block and head, the 4A-GZE was equipped with a roots-type supercharger and therefore the compression ratio, valve timing and ports were modified. It was used in the North American supercharged Toyota MR2, rated at 145 hp (108 kW) and 140 ft·lbf (190 N·m). Later versions of this engine are rated 170 hp (127 kW) and 155 ft·lbf (210 N·m) for the AE92 and AE101 Corolla.


4A-GE (20-valve)

A special 4A-GE was produced from 1991 through 1998 to replace the 16 valve 4A-GE. It was a naturally-aspirated engine with an additional intake valve for each cylinder, making it one of the first production 5-valve engines in history. These generation engines also featured quad throttle bodies. The engine can be recognized by its silver or black top. This was the last of the 4A family to be produced. Toyota VVT was used for 160–165 hp (123–127 kW) at 7800 rpm and 120 ft·lbf (162 N·m) at 5600 rpm, quite impressive for a naturally-aspirated 1.6 L engine. Note that although VVT was present in the silver top and the black top 4A-GE, VVT-i was not available.

Some Racing team participating in the Group A of the JGTC, using either the AE101, AE86 or AE82 corollas used modified silvertop versions of the engine, capable of approximately 240 Horsepowers at 11,000 RPM. The AE86 was particuraly popular, being able to beat cars with bigger engine such as the skyline.

Applications:

* 1992 Toyota Corolla Levin, Sprinter Trueno AE101 (silver-top) All GT models (GT Apex GT-V etc)

* 1995 Toyota Corolla Levin, Sprinter Trueno AE111 (black-top) All BZ models (BZG, BZR, BZV etc)

Toyota Variable Induction System,

Toyota Variable Induction System, or T-VIS, is a variable intake system designed by Toyota.

It improves the low-end torque of high-performance, small displacement four-stroke engines by changing the geometry of the intake manifold according to the engine rotation speed. The system uses two separate intake runners per cylinder, one being equipped with a butterfly valve that can either open or close the runner. All valves are attached to a common shaft which is rotated by a vacuum actuator outside the manifold.

The engine control unit allows vacuum into the actuator by powering a solenoid valve when the engine rotation speed is below 4200 rpm.Above this engine speed vacuum is cut off and a spring inside the actuator causes the butterfly valve to fully open. The theory behind the system is that in the lower speed band the velocity of the intake air can be improved because the intake runner cross section per cylinder is smaller. However, when the engine gains speed, the required air flow volume is more significant so the second runner is opened to improve the flow.

Toyota used the T-VIS system from the mid-80s to early 90s on its high-performance twincam engines, such as the 4A-GE and 3S-GE.

Shelby CSX

The Shelby CSX was a limited-production performance automobile based on the Dodge Shadow. Offered by Shelby from 1987 through 1989, the Shelby CSX was the most common Shelby vehicle of the 1980s.


CSX

The first Shelby CSX appeared in 1987. Power came from Shelby's Turbo II 2.2 L I4, with 175 hp (130 kW) and 175 ft.lbf (237 Nm). Performance was good with a 0 to 60 mph time of 7.0 s.

Shock absorbers and springs were replaced, and Daytona Shelby Z rear discs were added. Once again, Shelby used his own wheels. Outside badging was more restrained than other Shelby offerings.

750 1987 CSXes were sold, priced at $13,495. There was no optional equipment.


CSX-T

In 1966, Shelby created a special line of Shelby Mustangs for the Hertz car rental company. Shelby repeated this trick in 1988 with the creation of the CSX-T for the Thrifty rental company. The CSX-T was only sold to Thrifty, and 1,001 were produced.

The CSX-T was mechanically similar to the 1987 CSX with one major exception: The non-intercooled Turbo I engine was used. Two variations were made, an intercooled version given to the president of Thrifty and a version with a factory sunroof given to the president's daughter.


CSX-VNT

The final CSX was 1989's CSX-VNT. This would be the last Shelby Dodge, and marked two notable technological advances: the introduction of a variable-nozzle turbo and the application of composite wheels.

The engine was the new Turbo IV. The variable vanes were computer controlled and needed no wastegate. Instead, they adjusted the flow of exhaust gasses to spool up quickly and provide strong power. Power remained at 175 hp (130 kW), but torque was up to 205 ft.lbf (278 Nm). Car and Driver magazine was impressed with the engine's flexibility and top-gear acceleration.

The composite Fiberide wheels were also a first. Made of reinforced fiberglass, they were lighter than contemporary wheels.

Production was limited to 500 vehicles (including two prototypes) and Carroll Shelby's involvement with Dodge was over.

Volvo 780

The Volvo 780 coupé made its debut at the International Auto Show in Geneva, Switzerland in 1985. It marked the return of a two-door 2+2 seater coupe to the Volvo stable after a four-year absence following the departure of the 262C in 1981. The 780 became available in Europe in 1986, and would come to the United States a year later.

Like its predecessor, the 780 was designed and built by Carrozzeria Bertone in Turin, Italy. However, unlike the Volvo 262C, the 780 was not merely a two-door 760 with a "chop top" roof. Bertone gave the 780 its own distinctive shape which set it apart from the other models, yet was still identifiable as a Volvo. The car had a sleek, low profile, inheriting some of the styling of the other 700 series cars, but without many of the severe angles and sharp corners. The hood, trunk, and roof lines were all slightly lower than the standard 700 series profile, and the C-pillar was wider and had a more gradual slope down to the trunk. Headroom was improved over the 262C, due to Bertone’s mere 1 cm lowering of the roofline. Window frames all had black matte trim, and were accented with chrome. Chrome also highlighted the door handles, bumpers, and side mouldings.

In the first two years the 780 was available worldwide ('86 and '87) the 780 was available with the B280F V6 engine and a solid (live) rear axle. In the following year, they came equipped with Volvo's independent rear suspension, which used self-leveling Nivomat shocks, to keep ride height correct.

Many people began to take note of the relatively weak powerplant that the 780 had. The B280F at this point had roughly 150HP, but the car itself was nearly 3400 pounds. People wanted something better performing. Enter the B230FT+; a B230FT with Volvo's boost controller, Turbo+, increasing the engine output to 175hp. The following model year saw it increase to 188hp. In the car's finale year, 1991, it was rebadged simply as "Coupé". At this point, the car came only in turbo guise.

Volvo's official production total for the 780 is 8,518 cars built between 1985 and 1990. However, this number has often been disputed as different sources have often estimated the actual total to be higher. As before, a coupé would remain absent from Volvo's model line for several years, until the front-wheel drive C70 was premiered in 1995 for the following model year.

PRV engine

The PRV engine is an automobile petrol V6 engine that was developed jointly by Peugeot, Renault and Volvo Cars and sold from 1974 to 1998. It was gradually replaced after 1994 by another joint PSA-Renault design known as the ES engine at PSA and the L engine at Renault.


Engineering


Ignition timing

The original engineering work done on the V8 can still be seen in the resulting V6: its cylinder banks are arranged at 90° instead of the much more common 60°. V8 engines nearly universally feature 90° configurations because this allows for a natural firing order. V6 engines, on the other hand, are generally arranged at 60° (again because of timing) but can be built as 90° engines with either staggered timing or split crankshaft journals.

First-generation PRV engines (1974-1985) featured uneven ignition timing. Second generation PRV engines (introduced in 1984 in the Renault 25 Turbo) featured split crankshaft journals and even ignition timing all electronically controlled. [1] Other similar design examples are the odd-fire and even-fire Buick V6 and the Maserati V6 seen in the Citroën SM.


The ignition timing has nothing to do with the bank of the cylinders; V8s run smoothest with a 90º bank, while V6s run smoothest with a 60º bank. I do believe, however, that changing the cylinder firing order can result in a better idle quality and less vibrations. That is why the modern chevy small block v8 changed its firing order with the introduction of the LS series of engines in 1997.


Specifications

* Power (DIN): 100 kW at 92 r/s (136 hp at 5,500 rpm)
* Power (SAE): 97 kW at 92 r/s (130 hp at 5,500 rpm)
* Torque (DIN): 215 Nm at 48 r/s
* Torque (SAE): 208 Nm at 48 r/s (153 ft.lbf at 2,750 rpm)
* Compression ratio: 8.8:1
* Bore: 91 mm
* Stroke: 73 mm
* Displacement: 2,849 cm³
* Firing order: 1-6-3-5-2-4
* Weight: ~150 kg


PRV powered automobiles

The dates following each entry denote the introduction of a PRV V6-equipped model

* Alpine A310 (October 1976)
* Alpine A610 (1991)
* Alpine GT/GTA (1984)
* Citroën XM (1989)
* De Lorean DMC-12 (1981)
* Dodge Monaco (1990-1992)
* Eagle Premier (1988-1992)
* Helem V6
* Lancia Thema (1984)
* Peugeot 504 coupé/cabriolet (1974/1975)
* Peugeot 505 (July 1986)
* Peugeot 604 (March 1975)
* Peugeot 605 (1990)
* Renault 25 (1984)
* Renault 30 (March 1975)
* Renault Espace
* Renault Laguna
* Renault Safrane
* Talbot Tagora (1980)
* Venturi (all models)
* Volvo 262/264/265 (October 3, 1974)
* Volvo 760 GLE (February 1982)
* Volvo 780 (1985)


PRV engines in racing

* Alpine A310 V6
* Fouquet buggies
* Peugeot 504 V6 Coupé
* Schlesser Original
* Venturi 400GTR and 600LM
* WM Peugeot

Exhaust gas recirculation

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is a NOx (nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide) reduction technique used in most gasoline and diesel engines.

EGR works by recirculating a portion of an engine's exhaust gas back to the engine cylinders. Intermixing the incoming air with recirculated exhaust gas dilutes the mix with inert gas, lowering the adiabatic flame temperature and (in diesel engines) reducing the amount of excess oxygen. The exhaust gas also increases the specific heat capacity of the mix lowering the peak combustion temperature. Because NOx formation progresses much faster at high temperatures, EGR serves to limit the generation of NOx. NOx is primarily formed when a mix of nitrogen and oxygen is subjected to high temperatures.


EGR in Spark-Ignited (SI) Engines

In a typical automotive SI engine, 5 to 15 percent of the exhaust gas is routed back to the intake as EGR (thus comprising 5 to 15 percent of the mixture entering the cylinders). The maximum quantity is limited by the requirement of the mixture to sustain a contiguous flame front during the combustion event; excessive EGR in an SI engine can cause misfires and partial burns. Although EGR does measurably slow combustion, this can largely be compensated for by advancing spark timing. Contrary to popular belief, a properly operating EGR actually increases the efficiency of gasoline engines via several mechanisms:

* Reduced throttling losses. The addition of inert exhaust gas into the intake system means that for a given power output, the throttle plate must be opened further, resulting in increased inlet manifold pressure and reduced throttling losses.

* Reduced heat rejection. Lowered peak combustion temperatures not only reduces NOx formation, it also reduces the loss of thermal energy to combustion chamber surfaces, leaving more available for conversion to mechanical work during the expansion stroke.

* Reduced chemical dissociation. The lower peak temperatures result in more of the released energy remaining as sensible energy near TDC, rather than being bound up (early in the expansion stroke) in the dissociation of combustion products. This effect is relatively minor compared to the first two.

It also decreases the efficiency of gasoline engines via a few more mechanisms

* Reduced intake charge density. EGR tends to heat the intake charge. This means a bigger piston or stroke must be used to induct the same amount of fuel and air mixture. This results in a bigger and heavier engine.

* Reduced specific heat ratio. A lean intake charge has a higher specific heat ratio than an EGR mixture. A reduction of specific heat ratio reduces the amount of energy that can be extracted by the piston.

EGR is typically not employed at high loads because it would reduce peak power output, and it is not employed at idle (low-speed, zero load) because it would cause unstable combustion, resulting in rough idle.


EGR in Diesel Engines

In modern diesel engines, the EGR gas is cooled through a heat exchanger to allow the introduction of a greater mass of recirculated gas. Unlike SI engines, diesels are not limited by the need for a contiguous flamefront; furthermore, since diesels always operate with excess air, they benefit from EGR rates as high as 50% (at idle, where there is otherwise a very large amount of excess air) in controlling NOx emissions.

Since diesel engines are unthrottled, EGR does not lower throttling losses in the way that it does for SI engines (see above). However, exhaust gas (largely carbon dioxide and water vapor) has a higher specific heat than air, and so it still serves to lower peak combustion temperatures; this aids the diesel engine's efficiency by reduced heat rejection and dissociation. There are trade offs however. Adding EGR to a diesel reduces the specific heat ratio of the combustion gases in the power stroke. This reduces the amount of power that can be extracted by the piston. EGR also tends to reduce the amount of fuel burned in the power stroke. This is evident by the increase in particulate emissions that corresponds to an increase in EGR. Particulate matter (mainly carbon) that is not burned in the power stroke is wasted energy. Stricter regulations on particulate matter(PM) call for further emission controls to be introduced to compensate for the PM emissions introduced by EGR. The most common is particulate filters in the exhaust system that result in reduce fuel efficiency. Since EGR increases the amount of PM that must be dealt with and reduces the exhaust gas temperatures and available oxygen these filters need to function properly to burn off soot, automakers have had to consider injecting fuel and air directly into the exhaust system to keep these filters from plugging up.


Implementation of EGR

Recirculation is usually achieved by piping a route from the exhaust manifold to the inlet manifold, which is called external EGR. A control valve (EGR Valve) within the circuit regulates and times the gas flow. Some engine designs perform EGR by trapping exhaust gas within the cylinder by not fully expelling it during the exhaust stroke, which is called internal EGR. A form of internal EGR is used in the rotary Atkinson cycle engine.

EGR can also be used by using a variable geometry turbocharger (VGT) which uses variable inlet guide vanes to build sufficient backpressure in the exhaust manifold. For EGR to flow, a pressure difference is required across the intake and exhaust manifold and this is created by the VGT.

Other methods that have been experimented with are using a throttle in a turbocharged diesel engine to decrease the intake pressure to initiate EGR flow.

Early EGR systems were relatively unsophisticated, utilizing manifold vacuum as the only input to an on/off EGR valve; reduced performance and/or drivability were common side-effects. However, modern systems utilizing electronic engine control computers, multiple control inputs, and servo-driven EGR valves typically improve performance/efficiency with no impact on drivability. In the past, a meaningful fraction of car owners disconnected their EGR systems. Some still do either because they believe EGR reduces power output, causes a build-up in the intake manifold in diesel engines, or because they feel the environmental intentions of EGR are misguided. Disconnecting an EGR system is usually as simple as unplugging an electrically operated valve or inserting a ball bearing into the vacuum line in a vacuum-operated EGR valve. In all cases, the EGR system will need to be operating normally in order to pass emissions tests.

Electronic throttle control

Electronic throttle control (ETC) is an automobile technology which severs the mechanical link between the accelerator pedal and the throttle. Most automobiles already use a throttle position sensor (TPS) to provide input to traction control, antilock brakes, fuel injection, and other systems, but use a bowden cable to directly connect the pedal with the throttle. An ETC-equipped vehicle has no such cable. Instead, the electronic control unit (ECU) determines the required throttle position by calculations from data measured by other sensors such as an accelerator pedal position sensor, engine speed sensor, vehicle speed sensor etc. The electric motor within the ETC is then driven to the required position via a closed-loop control algorithm within the ECU.

The benefits of ETC are largely unnoticed by most drivers because the aim is to make the vehicle power-train characteristics seamlessly consistent irrespective of prevailing conditions, such as engine temperature, altitude, accessory loads etc. The ETC is also working 'behind the scenes' to dramatically improve the ease with which the driver can execute gear changes and deal with the dramatic torque changes associated with rapid accelerations and decelerations.

Contrary to popular belief, except in concert with other technologies such as gasoline direct injection, ETC provides only a very limited benefit in areas such as air-fuel ratio control, exhaust emissions and fuel consumption reduction. ETC however makes it much easier to integrate features to the vehicle such as cruise control, traction control, stability control and others that require torque management, since the throttle can be moved irrespective of the position of the driver's accelerator pedal. A criticism of the very early ETC implementations was that they were "overruling" driver decisions. Nowadays, the vast majority of drivers have no idea how much intervention is happening.

Much of the engineering involved with drive-by-wire technologies including ETC deals with failure and fault management. Most ETC systems have sensor and controller redundancy, even as complex as independent microprocessors with independently written software within a control module whose calculations are compared to check for possible errors and faults.

Anti-lock braking (ABS) is a similar safety critical technology, whilst not completely 'by-wire', it has the ability to electronically intervene contrary to the driver's demand. Such technology has recently been extended to other vehicle systems to include features like brake assist and electronic steering control, but these systems are much less common, also requiring careful design to ensure appropriate back-up and fail-safe modes.

As of 2005, the Toyota Prius is the most prominent example of drive-by-wire technology, featuring electronic throttle, brake and transmission control. This is largely by necessity of the Hybrid Synergy Drive system, which assigns complete engine control and regenerative/friction braking decisions to a hybrid control computer. Further extending the drive-by-wire concept, in Europe and Japan automatic parking assist is also available — the car can control the steering to guide itself backwards into a parking space.

Some fanciful theories and applications abound as to what the ultimate implications of drive-by-wire technology might be. It has been suggested that drive-by-wire might allow a car to become completely separate from its controls, meaning that a car of the future might theoretically be controlled by any number of different control systems: push buttons, joysticks, steering wheels, or even voice commands — whatever device that designers could come up with. (This would have many advantages, such as increased flexibility for handicapped or disabled drivers.) Coupled with fuel cell applications, futuristic designs for such a car have been proposed, including a car whose entire functional driving components are concentrated in its chassis — the actual 'shell' of the car being a module that can be swapped out and replaced with different models as the driver dictates. Competitors in the DARPA Grand Challenge, an automated driving competition, relied on 100% drive-by-wire systems, in some cases including a steer-by-wire system provided by the manufacturer.

Modern Tuning Makes Maximizing Performance Much Faster

Putting some extra ponies into your daily motoring used to take entire days, cost hundreds of dollars in parts, and usually cause the loss of three or four knuckles. Not so in today’s computer-controlled vehicles, where tuning is about as easy as playing Tetris on a Game Boy. Let’s take a look at performance chips and programmers and how they’ve changed vehicle tuning.

Chances are you’ve seen the Saturday afternoon show geared toward squeezing every droplet of power out of a 50s or 60s classic. You know—the one hosted by two middle-aged guys, one with a toupee that may as well have “this is a toupee” painted on it. They spend the entire half-hour show with a bunch of time-lapsed shots taken of them tearing the engine apart to put in highly-specialized, insanely expensive parts. Once the project’s done, they fire-up the dyno and laud the 3hp gain they received for about 4 hours of total work. If you’re like me, that’s not exactly how you want to spend a weekend, all for 3hp that you may not even notice with your rear-o-meter.

Fortunately, you’re probably also driving a computer-controlled vehicle, like most of the ones sold for the last 25 years or so. That makes tuning much easier, because a set of programming determines the way your engine performs. Replace the programming with a set geared toward performance, and you have near-instant power gains. Don’t get me wrong—there’s a lot to be said for the virtues of a computer-free classic that you have full control over. But, when it comes to getting more power in just a few minutes time without ripping your hands to shreds or spending thousands on obscure parts, a computer-controlled vehicle has a distinct advantage.

How can you make these changes in minutes? With a power programmer or performance chip, like the ones made by Hypertech or Diablosport. These programmers are built to hold performance settings tested by experienced pros for your specific engine. All you have to do is plug it into the OBD-II port beneath your steering column. With simple yes or no commands, you can adjust how you want your engine to perform, upload the new programming, and you’re ready to rock with 25hp or more extra. The maximum time this will take to complete: just 10 minutes.

Many drivers who want the extra power are leery of this tuning method. “How can so much power be had so fast, when the TV pros spend hours to get few gains?” they ask. The answer is that automakers down-tune their cars for the masses. Engines are setup to work the same for you, the budding performance enthusiast, as they are for the elderly, who like to travel half the speed limit or through the occasional farmer’s market. You aren’t the average driver, and performance programmers aren’t average settings. It’s a perfect match for you; it’s not a perfect match for your mother.

Some drivers worry about warranty when they’re considering a performance programmer. Not only to the companies that make programmers take safety into account with their settings, they often give you ways to return to stock settings for service visits at the dealership. And, as with all performance mods, you’re protected by the Magnuson-Moss Warranty Act, a federal law that basically states that your vehicle’s warranty can’t be voided by mods unless the mods can be proven as the source of trouble. In other words, there’s no reason to wait—the true potential is waiting to be unlocked, and you can do it without breaking a sweat.

2007 Dodge Charge SRT8 review

2007 Dodge Charge SRT8

With a 425-horsepower Hemi V8, the SRT8 can hit 60 mph in about 5 seconds, but the fun's just getting started at 60. Muscle cars are known for their excess reserves of power.

The swift sedan covers the quarter-mile in under 14 seconds and needs only 110 feet to come to a complete stop from 60 mph. Examine the huge disc brakes visible behind the 20-inch alloy spoked wheels and you'll understand.

And here's a nice little test to illustrate the SRT8's capabilities: Going from 0 to 100 mph and back to 0 takes less than 17 seconds.

The SRT8, the most powerful version of the Charger that was reborn in 2006, is not intended as a high-volume model. It's really a showpiece that makes a great exemplar of power on the NASCAR circuit.

Enthusiasts will be instinctively drawn to the SRT8, and 70 percent of buyers will be men in an age range of 40 to 59 years, according to Dodge demographic studies. Buyers will have household incomes of $80,000 to $100,000 and 45 percent will have college degrees while 65 percent will have a spouse. The owners will come from a variety of professions and trades.

"The Dodge Charger's overall design suggests speed and performance, attributes that are accentuated in the Dodge Charger SRT8," said Trevor Creed, senior vice president for design at the Chrysler Group. "SRT touches such as the front air dam, hood scoop and rear spoiler are not only visual hallmarks of a true muscle car, they're also functional performance enhancements."

The front fascia has ducts that help direct fresh air to cool the brakes, and an air dam to reduce lift. A hood scoop funnels cool air into the engine compartment. The rear fascia directs air flow and frames dual 3.5-inch exhaust tips.

Sculpted seats with suede inserts are designed to hold the driver and passengers in place in dramatic maneuvers. The shoulder bolsters felt somewhat intrusive at times, however. All seats have contrasting red stitching.

The instrument panel features a 180-mph speedometer, a tachometer and a temperature gauge. A light-emitting-diode display in the gauge cluster can be set for oil temperature, oil pressure and tire pressure readouts.

The pedals can be extended to accommodate drivers of varying heights and the steering column is manually adjustable. The SRT8 comes with eight-way power driver's seat and collapsible heated side mirrors.

With the longest wheelbase in its class -- 120 inches -- the Charger's chassis creates a fairly roomy cabin.

The front-engine/rear-drive configuration allows a 50-50 weight distribution ratio, but rear-drive carries some handling handicaps in ice-bound climes.

While big 17-inch tires are standard on the SE and SXT trim levels, the R/T version sits on even larger 18-inchers mounted on polished aluminum wheels. The SRT8 trumps all the lesser models with 20-inch wheels.



TYPE:
Rear-drive, four-door, five-passenger full-size sedan.

PRICE:
$35,920 base

POWER:
6.1-liter
425-horsepower
SRT Hemi V8
Autostick automatic transmission.

FUEL ECONOMY:
14 city
20 highway mpg
gas-guzzler tax $2,100
estimated annual fuel cost $2,672.

CHASSIS:
Unitized steel body
independent suspension with short/long-arm front and coil springs
five-link rear
gas-charged shocks
front/rear stabilizer bars
power rack-and-pinion steering
power disc brakes with ABS
20-inch polished aluminum wheels.

LENGTH X WIDTH X HEIGHT:
200.1 x 74.5 x 58.2 inches.

WHEELBASE X TRACK:
120 x 63 inches.

CURB WEIGHT:
4,031 pounds.

STANDARD:
Power-adjustable pedals
power heated foldaway side mirrors
60/40 split folding rear seats
eight-way power adjustable driver's seat
fog lamps; six-speaker
276-watt Boston Acoustics sound system with AM/FM/CD stereo
air conditioning
power accessories
tilt-telescoping steering wheel
remote keyless entry
cruise control.

OPTIONS:
SRT Option Group I includes air filtering
automatic headlamps
air conditioning with dual-zone control
heated front seats
power windows ($675)
TorRed paint ($225)
SRT Option Group II includes 11 Kicker SRT high-performance speakers
security alarm ($845)
SRT Option Group III includes navigation system
six-disc CD changer
auto-dimming rearview mirror
hands-free communication ($2,355)
supplemental side air bags ($390)
power sunroof ($950)
rear-seat video system ($1,150).

Zenith Carburetters

Zenith Carburetters was a British company making carburetters. In 1955 they joined with their major pre-war rival Solex Carburetters and over time the Zenith brand name fell into disuse. The rights to the Zenith designs was owned by Solex UK.

The big products of Zenith were the Zenith-Stromberg carburettors used in MGs, 1967-1975 Jaguar E-types, Saab 90s and early 99s and 900s, 1969-1972 Volvo 140s and 164s, and some 1960s and 1970s Triumphs, for instance the Triumph Spitfire used Zenith IV carburettors in the North American market. In Australia the CD-150 and CDS-175 models were fitted to the hi performance triple carburettored Holden Torana GTR-XU1.

The Stromberg carburettor features a variable venturi controlled by a piston. This piston has a long, tapered, conical metering rod that fits inside an orifice which admits fuel into the airstream passing through the carburettor. Since the needle is tapered, as it rises and falls it opens and closes the opening in the jet, regulating the passage of fuel, so the movement of the piston controls the amount of fuel delivered, depending on engine demand.

The flow of air through the venturi creates a reduced static pressure in the venturi. This pressure drop is communicated to the upper side of the piston via an air passage. The underside of the piston is in communication with atmospheric pressure. The difference in pressure between the two sides of the piston creates a force tending to lift the piston. Counteracting this force is the force of the weight of the piston and the force of a compression spring which is compressed by the piston rising; because the spring is operating over a very small part of its possible range of extension, the spring force approximates to a constant force. Under steady state conditions the upwards and downwards forces on the piston are equal and opposite, and the piston does not move.

If the airflow into the engine is increased - by opening the throttle plate, or by allowing the engine revolutions to rise with the throttle plate at a constant setting - the pressure drop in the venturi increases, the pressure above the piston falls, and the piston is sucked upwards, increasing the size of the venturi, until the pressure drop in the venturi returns to its nominal level. Similarly if the airflow into the engine is reduced, the piston will fall. The result is that the pressure drop in the venturi remains the same regardless of the speed of the airflow - hence the name "constant depression" for carburettors operating on this principle - but the piston rises and falls according to the speed of the airflow.

Since the position of the piston controls the position of the needle in the jet, and thus the open area of the jet, while the depression in the venturi sucking fuel out of the jet remains constant, the rate of fuel delivery is always a definite function of the rate of air delivery. The precise nature of the function is determined by the tapered profile of the needle. With appropriate selection of the needle, the fuel delivery can be matched much more closely to the demands of the engine than is possible with the more common fixed-venturi carburettor, an inherently inaccurate device whose design must incorporate many complex fudges to obtain usable accuracy of fuelling. The well-controlled conditions under which the jet is operating also make it possible to obtain good and consistent atomisation of the fuel under all operating conditions.

This self-adjusting nature makes the selection of the maximum venturi diameter (colloquially, but inaccurately, referred to as "choke size") much less critical than with a fixed-venturi carburettor.

To prevent erratic and sudden movements of the piston it is damped by light oil in a dashpot (under the white plastic cover in the picture) which requires periodic topping up.

SU carburetor

SU carburettors (named for Skinners Union, the company that produced them) were a brand of sidedraft carburettor widely used in British (Austin, Morris, Triumph, MG) and Swedish (Volvo, Saab 99) automobiles for much of the twentieth century. Originally designed and patented by George Herbert Skinner in 1905, they remained in production through to the 1980s by which time they had become part of the BMC/British Leyland Group. Hitachi also built carburettors based on the SU design which were used on the Datsun 240Z and other Datsun Cars. While these look the same, they are different enough that needles (see below) are the only part that fits both.

SU carburettors featured a variable venturi controlled by a piston. This piston has a tapered, conical metering rod (usually referred to as a "needle") that fits inside an orifice ("jet") which admits fuel into the airstream passing through the carburettor. Since the needle is tapered, as it rises and falls it opens and closes the opening in the jet, regulating the passage of fuel, so the movement of the piston controls the amount of fuel delivered, depending on engine demand.

The flow of air through the venturi creates a reduced static pressure in the venturi. This pressure drop is communicated to the upper side of the piston via an air passage. The underside of the piston is open to atmospheric pressure. The difference in pressure between the two sides of the piston tends to lift the piston. Opposing this are the weight of the piston and the force of a spring that is compressed by the piston rising. Because the spring is operating over a very small part of its possible range of extension, its force is approximately constant. Under steady state conditions the upwards and downwards forces on the piston are equal and opposite, and the piston does not move.

If the airflow into the engine is increased - by opening the throttle plate (usually referred to as the "butterfly"), or by allowing the engine revs to rise with the throttle plate at a constant setting - the pressure drop in the venturi increases, the pressure above the piston falls, and the piston is sucked upwards, increasing the size of the venturi, until the pressure drop in the venturi returns to its nominal level. Similarly if the airflow into the engine is reduced, the piston will fall. The result is that the pressure drop in the venturi remains the same regardless of the speed of the airflow - hence the name "constant depression" for carburettors operating on this principle - but the piston rises and falls according to the speed of the airflow.

Since the position of the piston controls the position of the needle in the jet and thus the open area of the jet, while the depression in the venturi sucking fuel out of the jet remains constant, the rate of fuel delivery is always a definite function of the rate of air delivery. The precise nature of the function is determined by the profile of the needle. With appropriate selection of the needle, the fuel delivery can be matched much more closely to the demands of the engine than is possible with the more common fixed-venturi carburettor, an inherently inaccurate device whose design must incorporate many complex fudges to obtain usable accuracy of fuelling. The well-controlled conditions under which the jet is operating also make it possible to obtain good and consistent atomisation of the fuel under all operating conditions.

This self-adjusting nature makes the selection of the maximum venturi diameter (colloquially, but inaccurately, referred to as "choke size") much less critical than with a fixed-venturi carburettor. A two-inch SU carburettor is a useful device to have in the workshop when experimenting with engines, as it is possible to bolt it onto more or less any engine and the engine, if in good order, will burst into life without the need for complex carburettor adjustments to get it to start.

To prevent erratic and sudden movements of the piston it is damped by light oil in a dashpot, which requires periodic topping up. The dampening is asymmetrical; it heavily resists upwards movement of the piston. This serves as the equivalent of an "accelerator pump" on traditional carburettors by temporarily increasing the speed of air through the venturi, thus increasing the richness of the mixture.

The beauty of the SU lies in its simplicity and lack of multiple jets and ease of adjustment. Adjustment is accomplished by altering the starting position of the jet relative to the needle on a fine screw. At first sight, the principle appears to bear a similarity to that used on many motorcycles where the main needle position is raised and lowered by a direct connection to the throttle cable rather than indirectly by the depression in the venturi. However, this apparent similarity is misleading. The piston in a motorcycle-type carburettor is controlled by the demands of the rider rather than the demands of the engine, so the metering of the fuel is inaccurate unless the motorcycle is travelling at a constant speed at a constant throttle setting - conditions which are rarely encountered except on motorways. This inaccuracy results in the wasting of fuel, particularly as the carburettor must be set slightly rich to avoid damaging leanness under transient conditions. For this reason Japanese motorcycle manufacturers ceased to fit slide carbs and substituted constant-depression carbs which are essentially miniature Japanese SUs. It is also possible - indeed, easy - to retro-fit an SU carburettor to a bike that was originally manufactured with a slide carburettor, and thereby obtain improved fuel economy and more tractable low-speed behaviour.

Weber carburetor

Weber carburetors were originally produced in Italy by Edoardo Weber as part of a conversion kit for 1920s Fiats. Weber pioneered the use of two stage twin barrel carburetors, with two venturis of different sizes, the smaller one for low speed running and the larger one optimised for high speed use.

In the 1930s Weber began producing twin barrel carburetors for motor racing where two barrels of the same size were used. These were arranged so that each cylinder of the engine has its own carburetor barrel. These carburetors found use in Maserati and Alfa Romeo racing cars. Twin updraught Webers fed superchargers on the 1938 Alfa Romeo 8C competition vehicles.

In time, Weber carburetors were fitted to standard production cars and factory racing applications on automotive marques such as Abarth, Alfa Romeo, Aston Martin, BMW, Ferrari, Fiat, Ford, Lamborghini, Lancia, Lotus, Maserati, Porsche, Triumph and Volkswagen.

In the United States Weber Carburetors are sold for both street and off road use. They are sold in what is referred to as a Weber Conversion kit. A Weber conversion kit is a complete package of Weber Carburetor, intake manifold or manifold adapter, throttle linkage, air filter and all of the necessary hardware needed to install the Weber on a vehicle.

In modern times, fuel injection has replaced carburetors in both production cars and most modern motor racing, although Weber carburetors are still used extensively in classic and historic racing. They are also supplied as high quality replacements for problematic OEM carburetors. Weber fuel system components are distributed by Magneti-Marelli and Webcon UK Ltd.

SUV Wheel And Tire Maintenance

Your SUV's wheels and tires are one the most essential parts of your vehicle. Because SUVs, such as the Land Rover Range Rover, are 4WD, it can go through any terrain that the planet could offer. And when it does, the tires and wheels of your SUV do not just obviously help you to reach your destination because it is the major equipment that makes your vehicle move. However, the functions of the wheels and tires do not just end there. These parts also emphasize the overall appearance of your vehicle. Moreover, the wheels can actually improve your cars performance just by effective cleaning. Like any other car parts like Land Rover Range Rover parts, SUV wheels can eventually be corrosive and tires could wear out because of certain factors.

Getting your SUV perfectly cleaned on a local car wash is a great idea. However, the only drawback of it is the cost that you would be spending in a car wash. Why go to a car wash if you could clean your wheels by yourself, right? So here are some few guides in effective cleaning and maintenance of your vehicle's wheels and tires.

Before we proceed to the cleaning session, first you should know the factors that made your wheels and tires unpleasant. Whenever you use your SUV for a long travel or even in a short trip, dust particles attack the surface of your wheels. Other unwanted dirt on your wheels and tires include road tars, mud, and different soil crumbs. Acid rain and winter salt are effective destroyers that can make your wheels brittle.

Cleaning your wheels and tires is actually the first step in car washing. You should first select a certain cleaner for your wheels and tires. There are a lot of cleaning agents out in the market today but you should choose the safest and most effective cleaning agent for your wheels and tires. Some cleaning agent contains a high level of acidity and can easily damage your wheels. Acid-free cleaners are effective cleaning agents that are commonly used by car wash shops. The most common cleaner is the household detergent because you can find it anywhere in your kitchen, or toilette, of course. Not only that, detergent is also effective and is the safest cleaner because it does not contain any harmful ingredients that can affect your car. Wheels and tires of SUVs are much larger and broader than other vehicles so the cleaning process most likely will take longer compared to sedans.

Now let us start with the cleaning process. First, you should check your tires for road dirt and mud. If you found one, then scrape it with any hard object you can find in your place, but be careful not to scratch your tires so hard. Dilute your chosen cleaner in a bucket of water and then start brushing your tires. The grooves of your tires are the most susceptible to mud and road tars. Brush it effectively. After cleaning your tires, proceed to the wheels. Rinse the brush that you had used in your tires and start brushing your wheels in up and down motion. Pretty easy, right? You should actually clean your wheels and tires once a month for maintenance.

Hybrid Cars

The hybrid version of automobiles offers the customer an interesting assortment of engine features that are supplemented with power options through the use of electrical motor and battery participation. These engine features are not available in every hybrid automobile currently being sold at automobile dealerships or through private sales in society today. The hybrid engines are equipped with gas powered, or dual powered engines, as well as an electrical motor that renders power support when needed. There is a heavy duty battery that serves as a source of power as well.

Within the hybrid breed of automobile engine varieties, there is a mild hybrid category and a full hybrid category. While each of these categories contain the same equipment, the performance of that installed equipment can cause your automobile to operate on entirely different principles. The mild hybrid category consists of a gas powered automobile engine that serves as the propulsion mechanism to move your automobile down the street.

Paired with this gas powered automobile engine is an electrical motor, as well as a heavy duty battery that are snuggly connected throughout the engine maze of pipes and mechanisms that when energized can provide propulsion to move your automobile forward. The hybrid car engine is the only source of propulsion power in the mild hybrid engine model, and the electrical motor remains in standby mode to provide spurts of energy and power to aid the gas powered engine in passing vehicles on a highway or wherever else a sudden surge of power will be of benefit.

The full hybrid category consists of a gas powered automobile engine that is considered the propulsion mechanism as well as an energy saving device. An electrical motor and a heavy duty battery are also part of this full hybrid engine power force. The gas powered engine works hand in hand with the electrical motor to provide the necessary boosts of energy to cause the car to propel through traffic. When the car is stopped at a traffic light, the gas powered engine will cease to operate, and the electrical motor will take over in providing propulsion power for the car to move from the site. Once the car achieves a good level of speed, the gas powered engine in the hybrid car will automatically engage and cause the car to continue down the street under gas engine power. The heavy duty battery is continually charged by the electrical motor at the same time.

The energy savings are accumulated during the different stops and starts that the vehicle might experience as the automobile moves toward its destination. Whenever the gas powered engine is not engaged there is a cost savings realized in its lax state of operation. The hybrid motor is quite capable of consuming energy and generating the right amount of power at the same time. These moments of non-engagement will save the consumer money in gas cost every time the automobile is driven down the road.

In conclusion, there exist more logical advantages of owning a hybrid car which is an unstoppable growing trend and unconfrontational facts.

Modern Car Brakes

Modern Car brakes were invented in the late 19th century, around the same time as the tyre. Up until then, vehicles had wooden wheels that were stopped by large wooden blocks, lowered into position by the driver using a simple lever system. When tyres were invented, the wooden block system wasn't good enough to stop them at the higher speeds they could achieve, which meant that a new braking system had to be invented.

The braking system is the most important system in the car. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. The brakes are in essence energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of your vehicle into thermal energy (heat).

In recent years, brakes have changed greatly in design. Disc brakes, due to their lighter weight and better performance, are replacing drum types on the rear wheels. Instead of linings which press outwards against the inside of a drum, a disc attached to the axle is gripped from either side by friction pads attached to the calipers. The greatest advantage of disc brakes is that they are essentially "fade" free. That is, repeated application does not result in excessively high temperatures developing in the linings and drums, lowering the stopping power of the brake. Commonplace on newer cars are "anti-lock" brake systems, (ABS) which prevent the wheels from completely stopping when the brakes are applied in a panic stop.

To see the basic principles of modern braking, it is easiest to look at a bicycle. Basically, when you put pressure on the brakes, the pressure is transferred through cables to pull small pads onto the side of the tyres, and the force of the friction against the tyres causes them to stop.

In fact, cars originally used this very same cable system, but it was found not to work so well at high speeds. Instead, the cables were replaced with hydraulic fluid, which works to transfer the pressure the driver puts on the pedal to the brakes. This works because the fluid cannot get much smaller when pressure is put on it, meaning that pressure at one end is transferred to the other much like water flowing through a pipe. However, if this brake fluid leaks even a little, then the brakes may not work properly any more, which is why it's very important to check your brake fluid regularly.

Of course, in modern cars, there are other mechanisms apart from pure pressure to help you brake. Most cars now have a vacuum system to create more friction in the brakes, and a servo system that uses the car's own speed to help your pressure have more of an impact.

Some modern cars now have fully computerised brakes, where pushing on the pedal sends an electrical signal to turn on electrically-powered brakes. While this makes it much easier to brake, it is also more prone to failure, meaning that if your car's computer breaks you might find it impossible to stop.

Toyota Avalon Review

The Toyota Avalon?s design was originally based upon the technology of the Toyota Camry. This four door, front wheel drive care became popular on the market, especially in 2006. The cabin of the Avalon is quite spacious and comfortable. They have added lavish high quality features including the leather trimmed seats with ergomanically designed controls. The perfectly tuned suspension and quiet engine complements the tranquil interior. It is currently vying in the market of all other full sized sedans and holding their own. In the past year, the Toyotal Avalon features all the latest technology in fuel efficiency, safety, and performance. The new models have the latest, but it is not extravagant in its styling. It is sleek and contemporary and gives the driver a more sophisticated look that one can not ignore.

It has been long said that a Toyota can be driven for over 100,000 miles and still keep on going and going. The Toyota Avalon is not exception to this rule. There has not been one Toyota Avalon out in the market that has been a flop. This is due to Toyota Corporation employing excellent marketing strategies and due to their high level of expertise when it comes to deciding what is right for the company. Toyota went from being Japan?s largest auto maker to America?s third largest and one of the best known manufactures in the world.

Part of Toyota?s quality is that if you are looking for replacement parts, you can go online now and search to find what you are looking for. Each certified Toyota Avalon part is designed to meet the exact requirements of the detailed Toyota user. Toyota parts are sure to give your vehicle a better quality ride, increased comfort and safety.

Toyota Prius Review

Concept vehicles are big in the world of cars. The Toyota Prius has the distinction of being the worlds cleanest and planet friendly vehicle. It has been given the honor of being the 2006 European Car of the year because of the standards that it set for manufactures when building their hybrid cars. Consumer Reports even reported that the Toyota Prius came in with a 94 percent owner satisfaction rating. Most of the current owners of a Prius would definitely purchase another one again, thus making Consumer Reports rate it as the most satisfying vehicles on the road.

So Just what make the Prius a step above the rest? The Toyota Prius is an astonishing Hybrid. The way Toyota uses technology is quite amazing. Instead of just turning a key to start the ignition, the Toyota Prius is started by pressing a round ?Power? button on the dash board. Toyota has incorporated an interactive touch sensitive multi-informational display screen that is mounted on the center console. This display screen has many functions from showing you fuel consumption, radio settings, climate control, and many other functions that are occurring within the vehicle.

The Toyota Prius carries a rating of Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emission Vehicle, making it the cleanest emission production car on the road today. The Prius boasts an average of 90 percent more cleaner air than the average car on the road today. It employs the Hybrid Synergy Drive technology making it the leading vehicle in the industry of Hybrid technology. It offers a seamless integration of gas engine and emissions free electric motor allowing it to achieve amazing fuel economy. This makes it the best choice for the environment and the consumer.

Hybrids have become more and more popular in the world because of its dramatically increased fuel efficiency; especially with the rising cost of gas prices all over the world. People tend to flock to cars that will give them the most bang for their buck and are environmentally friendly. This make the Toyota Prius the most environmentally friendly care on the road today and thus, will be a good choice for you, your family, and the environment.

GM X platform

There have been two X-body automobile platforms from General Motors. All X-bodies were small entry-level models.


Rear wheel drive

The rear-wheel drive X-body underpinned the Chevrolet Nova and similar cars of the late 1960s and 1970s. It was also the basis for the Cadillac Seville's K platform. The wheelbase was 111 in and many components were shared with the contemporary F platform.

Applications:

* Buick Apollo (1973–1974; 1975 sedan only)
* Buick Skylark (1975 coupe only; 1976–1979)
* Chevrolet Nova (1968–1979)
* Oldsmobile Omega (1973–1979)
* Pontiac Ventura (1971–1977)
* Pontiac Phoenix (1977–1979)

1968–1974 GM X-bodies were rear steer (with the steering linkage behind the engine crossmember) whereas 1975–1979 models were front steer (with the steering linkage forward of the engine crossmember.) Note: "Rear steer" does not mean that the rear wheels steered the vehicle. It strictly relates to the position of steering components in relation to the engine crossmember. No station wagons were produced on the X-body platform. (Rival Chrysler produced a station wagon based on their Dodge Aspen/Plymouth Volare compacts.)


Front wheel drive

The front-wheel drive X-body was used for compact cars from 1980 to 1985. The X-body program was widely considered a failure at the time, but the derivative GM A platform, which was introduced in 1982, continued for over a decade. Interestingly, only the Skylark name was carried over to the next generation of GM compact cars, the N-body. The Citation was succeeded by the Chevrolet Corsica on the compact L-body for 1987.

Vehicles using the X-body include:

* 1980-1984 Oldsmobile Omega
* 1980-1984 Pontiac Phoenix
* 1980-1985 Buick Skylark
* 1980-1985 Chevrolet Citation


Braking problems

NHTSA sued General Motors Corporation over the safety of their X platform family (United States v. General Motors, 841 F.2d 400 (D.C. Cir. 1988)).

The cars were initially designed to be five-passenger models, with bucket seats and lever actuated parking brakes. However, a decision was made late in the design cycle to broaden the cars' purchasing appeal by offering six-passenger models with bench seats. This necessitated a change from a parking brake lever (mounted between the seats) to a parking brake pedal. The pedal, however, did not have enough leverage to apply sufficient pressure to the rear brakes to hold the car on an incline.

Without enough time to redesign the braking system, the decision was made simply to use brake linings with a higher coefficient of friction instead, to hold the car with the pressure that could be applied through the parking brake pedal. However, this in turn had an undesirable effect; the increase in friction of the rear brakes, along with the excess forward weight distribution of a front wheel drive car, led to a tendency for the rear wheels to lock up under braking, which led to the rear of the car slewing sideways and loss of directional control and/or spinning (see oversteer).

The Court of Appeals eventually ruled against NHTSA and for GM, however, on the grounds that NHTSA's case for performance failure was based only on circumstantial evidence.

Buick Skylark 1953

The Buick Skylark (first use of the name for a production vehicle) on one of three specialty convertibles produced in 1953 by General Motors; the other two were the Oldsmobile Fiesta and the Cadillac Eldorado. All three were limited production vehicles promoting General Motors' design leadership. Of the three, the Skylark had the most successful production run with 1,690 produced. This was considered quite an amazing sales feat, for the car had a list price in 1953 of slightly in excess of US$5,000. However, many languished in dealer showrooms and were sold at discount.

All 1,690 regular-production Skylarks built in 1953 (and all in 1954) were convertibles. The 1953s were based on the 2-door Roadmaster convertible, having identical dimensions (except height), almost identical convenience and appearance equipment, and a Roadmaster drive train. In 1953, the model designation for the Skylark was 76X, while the model designation for the Roadmaster convertible was 76R. The few options available to the Roadmaster convertible buyer were standard equipment to the Skylark buyer, albeit the base price for the well-equipped Roadmaster convertible was only about US$3,200.

The 1953 Skylark featured V8 power and a 12 volt electrical system, both a first for Buick, as well as full-cutout wheel openings, a styling cue that would make its way to the main 1954 Buick line. Also making its way into the 1954 Buick line was the cut-down door at the base of the side window line that bounced back up to trace around the rear window (or convertible top). This styling clue stayed with Buick for many years and can be found on any number of automobile brands to this day.

The 1953 Buick Skylark was a handmade car in many respects. The stampings for the hood, trunk lid and a portion of the convertible tub were the same as the 1953 Roadmaster convertible (and Super convertible, model 56R). The stampings for the front fenders, rear fenders, the outer doors, and a portion of the convertible tub were unique to the Skylark. All Skylark convertible tubs were finished with various amounts of lead filler. It is not unusual to find a substantial amount of lead filler just behind the doors near the bottom of the window line. The inner doors of the Skylark were made from the inner doors of the 2-door Roadmaster and Super by cutting the stamping in half approximately parallel with the ground and then welding the two pieces back together in a jig at an angle that produced the necessary door dip (see photos of finished car).

Although there were many unique design features of the 1953 Skylark, one that goes almost unnoticed today is that the top and seating of the car were lowered a few inches below the Roadmaster and Super convertibles. This was achieved not by changing the frame, body or suspension, but by cutting the windshield almost three inches shorter and lowering the side windows and convertible top frame. To accommodate people without bumping their heads with the top up, the seat frames and steering column were lowered.

The wheels of the 1953 Skylark were true wire wheels, produced by Kelsey-Hayes, with everything chromed save for the plated and painted "Skylark" center emblem. Although this was high style in 1953, the wheels were heavier than the regular steel wheels, would require periodic truing to keep them straight and balanced, and required tubes within the tires just when tubeless tires were becoming the norm, as they were throughout the rest of the Buick line.

For 1954, the Skylark returned, although radically restyled [1]. This Skylark featured elongated wheel cutouts, the interior of which were available painted a contrasting color to the body color. For example, black cars could receive white or red wheel wells. The trunk of the restyled Skylark was sloped into a semi-barrel shape. Tail lights were housed in large chromed fins that projected from the tops of the rear fenders.

The car was now based on the all-new shorter Century/Special chassis and not the top-of-the-line Roadmaster/Super chassis, also all-new for 1954. However, it did share the Roadmaster and Century powertrain, the highest output in the 1954 Buick model lineup. This powertrain was an evolutionary improvement, but very similar to the 1953 powertrain.

The model designation for the 1954 Buick Skylark was "100", a completely unique designation. The short wheelbase cars were the Buick Special: series 40, the Buick Century: series 60, and the Buick Skylark: series 100, albeit a series of just one model. All production Buick Skylarks were built as 2-door convertibles. They had the same luxury equipment as the 1953 Buick Skylarks.

Like their 1953 counterparts, the 1954 Skylark had a number of unique sheetmetal stampings, but without the hand labor that went into the 1953 Skylark production. In addition to unique front and rear fenders with the elongated wheel cutouts, the 1954 Skylark had a unique trunk with its semi-barrel shape and huge, rounded chrome fins. Interestingly, the hood was also unique to the 1954 Skylark in a small way. The hood ornament was quite different from all other Buick models for the 1954 model year. However, this same hood ornament, although unique in size to just this one model in 1954, was to portend the design of the 1955 Buick hood ornament used on all models of that year.

The cost of the Skylark, mixed with the public's dislike for the restyle and its perceived step down in rank to the Special/Century series versus the 1953 rank with the Super/Roadmaster series resulted in poor sales and the car's demise at the end of the 1954 model year.


Engines

* 322 in³ (5.3 L) Nailhead V8

GM Iron Duke engine

The Iron Duke (also called the 2500, 151, Pontiac 2.5, Cross Flow, and Tech IV, though the decal on the air filter assemblies actually reads "4 Tech") was a 2.5 L (151 in³) I4 piston engine. All Iron Dukes were built by Pontiac beginning in 1977 and ending in 1993.

This 151 was also used by American Motors (AMC) starting in 1980, as the base engine option in the RWD Spirit and Concord, and continuing in both cars through 1982. The AWD (4x4) Eagle carried the 151 as standard equipment for 1981, and carried it midway through the 1983 model year. It was also available (as the Hurricane) in economy model Jeep CJs. AMC replaced the Iron Duke 2.5L I4 with a 150cid Inline-4 of their own, derived from their evergreen sixes.

The Iron Duke is often confused with Chevrolet's Stovebolt-derived 153 from the 1960s Chevy II, but the engines are entirely different - the Iron Duke's intake manifold is on the passenger side, as opposed to the driver side. One thing that both share is the Chevrolet Small-Block bell housing bolt pattern.

Applications:

* 1977 Pontiac Astre
* 1978-1980 Pontiac Sunbird
* 1984-1988 Pontiac Fiero
* 1982-1985 Chevrolet Camaro
* 1985-1990 Chevrolet Astro
* 1985-1990 GMC Safari
* Chevrolet Celebrity
* Chevrolet S-10
* Chevrolet S-10 Blazer
* GMC Sonoma
* GMC S-15 Jimmy
* Chevrolet Monza
* Buick Skylark
* Buick Skyhawk
* Buick Century
* Pontiac 6000
* 1985-1991 Pontiac Grand Am
* Oldsmobile Ciera
* Oldsmobile Omega
* AMC Concord/Spirit (1980-82)
* Eagle (1981-83)
* Jeep CJ (1980-83)
* Grumman LLV United States Postal Service delivery vehicle

Ethanol in the Race of the Bio-Fuels

Much talk has been going on about the use of the so-called alternative fuel sources in order to answer the demand of preserving the environment. One of the highest possible sources of this alternative fuel is ethanol, or that fuel which is derived from corn.
Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol or more commonly referred to simply as alcohol, is a flammable, colorless, and slightly toxic chemical compound which emits a sweet odor similar to that from most perfumes. This is that type of alcohol that is found in alcoholic beverages. Moreover, this ethanol can also be used as fuel additives, which is what is being introduced in the markets nowadays.

Brazil has the largest national ethanol fuel industries. Gasoline sold in Brazil has at least 20% of ethanol and hydrous ethanol used as fuel. This turnabout in the success of the ethanol fuel in Brazil was due to their almost 30 years of continuous research and study on the effects and other possibilities of the said fuel and still continuing research on the fuel’s compatibility with the many different engine types. Due to this, almost 50% of the cars in Brazil are able to use almost 100% ethanol as fuel. Flex fuel engines can work either with all ethanol or all gasoline or a mixture of both to give the users the optimum performance of their vehicle.

This trend has started to find its way into the international market. In the US, many studies are being conducted to try the said fuel. According to the Renewable Fuels Association (RFA) about 107 biorefineries in the US have the capacity to produce up to 5.1 billion gallons of ethanol per year.

Ethanol production would mean additional job opportunities in the field of agriculture and in the manufacturing industry. Also, since ethanol creates very little pollution when burned, this would be equal to lesser pollution and thus, cleaner air. Lesser pollution would also lessen the effects of global warming.

Because of the noise that ethanol fuel is making, the ethanol producers are slowly getting the support that they need in the campaign of promoting their product. The National Corn Growers Association (NCGA) lowered their heads to the lawmakers and put an end on costly budget proposals that could have triggered direct crop subsidy payments, instead they opted for another mode of action to tie some subsidies to revenue rather than production levels.
Many of the known automobile manufacturers have also joined in the talks regarding the issue. Still wary on the effects of this fuel upon the make up of their products and the condition of the probable alterations on some of the important vehicular parts like the Mercedes radiator they testified before the House Energy and Commerce subcommittee on energy and air quality

2008 Jeep Liberty

Despite the crisis that Chrysler maker of quality Jeep multi rib belt is facing it has been able to come up with best-selling models such as the Jeep Liberty. The Jeep Liberty is one of those Chrysler’s creations that have remained a leader in the mid-size sport utility SUV market since its initial introduction in the year 2002. The Jeep Liberty as its name suggest provides off-road enthusiasts and car owners with the liberty or freedom as well as capability that only Jeep can provide.

The Jeep Liberty from the ground up exudes its true legendary 4x4 heritage by providing two Jeep Trail Rate four-wheel-drive systems-Command-Trac and the all-new Selec-Trac II. The Liberty’s on-road ride and handling have also been improved and refined with the new independent front suspension, new five-link rear suspension and rack-and-pinion steering.

The exterior of the Liberty has been redesigned to give it a more rugged, classic Jeep look that will surely captivate the attention of current Jeep Liberty owners as well as those other Jeep fanatics. Inside the Liberty is a cargo and storage space that has been made even more spacious. The seats were also made even more comfortable. The new Sky Slider full-open canvas roof which is an industry-exclusive will make its debut as part of the Jeep Liberty.

The Liberty also features remote start, rain-sensing wipers, memory seats and mirrors, and express up/down windows are added to the vehicle’s ever growing list of options. There are two models of the Liberty being offered—the Jeep Liberty Sport and the Jeep Liberty Limited.

The new Jeep Liberty is designed for those who do not only want the Jeep 4x4 capability but are also looking for comfort and convenience. The Liberty is also ideal for young couples, families, professionals, single men and women who are between 30 and 40 years old. The new Liberty can help balance day-to-day activities and at the same time functions well when extreme outdoor performance is called for. Jeep Liberty is scheduled to hit dealerships beginning the third quarter of this year.


Jeep Liberty Features

The all-new 2008 Jeep Liberty provides a balance of on-road refinement and off-road capability.
It has an independent front suspension,

a power rack-and-pinion steering system,

all new five link rear suspension,

two four-wheel-drive systems (all-new Selec-Trac II,

full time four wheel drive system and Command-Trac,

a part-time four wheel drive system—both are Jeep Trail Rated).

The liberty is powered by a 3.7 liter SOHC V6 engine that revs up 210 hp (157 kW) at 5,200 rpm and 235 lb-ft (319 Nm) of torque at 4,000 rpm.

Fuel economy has also been improved now reaching only 16 mpg for city driving and 22 mpg on highway.

There are also two transmissions offered for the Jeep Liberty in the United States and that is a six-speed manual transmission and a four speed automatic transmission. The 2008 Jeep Liberty was designed and engineered under the CDS or the Chrysler Development System which is a comprehensive, coordinated and disciplined product creation process that boost quality and production while reducing costs and encouraging practical innovation in new products.

In terms of safety and security features the 2008 Jeep Liberty is equipped with a full range of active and passive safety systems such as the Electronic Stability Program, Brake Assist, Electronic Roll Mitigation, advanced anti-lock brakes, All-speed Traction Control, tire pressure monitoring, rain sensing wipers, and side curtain air bags.

The 2008 Jeep Liberty will also feature the MyGIG Multimedia Infotainment System and SIRIUS Satellite Radio which provides customers throughout the US with 130 channels, including 100 percent commercial-free music, news, sports, entertainment, talk, traffic, and weather. The 2008 Jeep Liberty will also have the UConnect hands-free communication system that uses Bluetooth Technology which enables wireless communication between the car owner’s mobile phone and the vehicle’s on-board receiver.

Turbos at High Altitudes

A turbocharger helps at high altitudes, where the air is less dense. Normal engines will experience reduced power at high altitudes because for each stroke of the piston, the engine will get a smaller mass of air. A turbocharged engine may also have reduced power, but the reduction will be less dramatic because the thinner air is easier for the turbocharger to pump.

Older cars with carburetors automatically increase the fuel rate to match the increased airflow going into the cylinders. Modern cars with fuel injection will also do this to a point. The fuel-injection system relies on oxygen sensors in the exhaust to determine if the air-to-fuel ratio is correct, so these systems will automatically increase the fuel flow if a turbo is added.

If a turbocharger with too much boost is added to a fuel-injected car, the system may not provide enough fuel -- either the software programmed into the controller will not allow it, or the pump and injectors are not capable of supplying it. In this case, other modifications will have to be made to get the maximum benefit from the turbocharger.

Advantages of Having a GPS Vehicle Tracking System

It seems that everywhere you look there is a GPS advertisement, and for good reason. This system, when installed in a vehicle can help you in a variety of different situations. However, while all of this technology can be a wonderful thing to have at your fingertips, knowing how to use it can be a bit overwhelming. The following information is a general guide to most GPS vehicle systems and will help you navigate through the buttons and options with ease.

Perhaps one of the most important and emotional reasons to have a GPS vehicle tracking system installed in your car is the "panic" button. This button is to be used in cases of emergency. This can include everything from a fender bender to a carjacking, what ever the reason, when this button is pushed an operator at the GPS carrier can immediately listen to what is happening. If it is safe, and there is no robbery taking place, they will talk to you and help to asses the situation. If, however, they determine that it would be detrimental to speak to you, they will contact the authorities for you.

For instance, if you, or your children, lock you out of your car, it can easily be unlocked by phoning into the call center of the service you choose. This is also a very handy feature if you tend to lose your car in a crowded parking lot, they will find it for you and send the lights flashing and the horn honking for you. Maybe the best thing about being able to call for help in these types of situations is that you don't have to actually see the grins on the faces of the people you are speaking with.

If you happen to be traveling in your car and it begins to show signs of a mechanical issue, or perhaps it completely breaks down and leaves you stranded in the middle of nowhere, you will have the peace of mind of knowing that you only have to push a button and help will be summoned. Most systems will have this particular button labeled as a "communication" button.

For many parents, this device can give them peace of mind. It gives them the ability to call and check upon the exact whereabouts of a car that is being driven by a child without directly interfering with their plans.


The most obvious reason to have a GPS vehicle tracking system is in a situation where your car is stolen. If you ever become a victim of vehicle theft and are lucky enough to have a GPS system installed all you will need to do is to inform your GPS carrier of the theft. They can track the cars' exact location and its speed, when the vehicle has been located, they will call police to recover it for you.

The advantages of having a GPS vehicle tracking system installed are numerous, but beware of what you are paying for before you sign on the dotted line. Find out exactly what options your plan covers and what the monthly service fee is. Make sure also, that your system is being installed by someone who is licensed to do so.

Diesel Performance

If you were to modify a gas engine for performance, you would be required to install a different camshaft, bore out the cylinders to increase displacement, install high compression pistons and heads, increase fuel intake capability by installing a larger carburetor or injection system, adding a turbo charger or supercharger, adding a chip, and enlarging the exhaust system.

But then you are still restricted by emission control systems. On the other hand, diesel trucks and cars are mostly turbo charged, and they already run at a higher compression ratio. Whereas on the gas vehicles you would have to make those changes. If you were to make those changes to a gas engine you would truly have a ground pounding beast, but would lose every day drive ability.

The Diesels on the other hand are nice to drive around even with considerable modification. With a cold air intake, a chip, more efficient injectors, and a more open exhaust system, the diesels are still a nice ride, but when you really give it the gas, all heck breaks loose. There is enormous power without reducing drive ability.

Because of the nature of diesel engines they are designed from the factory to withstand much higher compression ratios than a gas engine. The diesel fuel combusts when it is compressed to a certain point whether or not there is optimum air. By simply shooting more fuel into the combustion chamber you can make more power. When you then improve the air ratio & timing of the fuel - you can make dramatic power and also improve engine efficiency. Gasoline
requires a spark to ignite it & must have the appropriate mixture of air to burn properly. There is also a lot more energy in a given amount of diesel fuel than in an equal amount of gasoline.

I will now break down the most popular modifications and explain their benefits.

1. A cold air intake is sealed away from the hot engine air, and is
located where it can take in more air. Cold air intakes are equipped with a filter that can take in up to 300% more air. Cold air takes up less space. So there can be more air, more air helps to burn all the fuel, thus giving more power and better fuel economy.

2. Chips make alterations to how the fuel is delivered to the engine, making it more efficient and more powerful.

3. A bigger exhaust or a mandrel bent exhaust (keeps the tube round, and the size constant) improves exhaust flow. Getting exhaust away from the engine is just as important in combustion as getting air into the engine. There are exhausts now that will even vacuum exhaust away from the engine, making it so that the engine doesn’t have to do that work.

All of these modifications add to the fuel economy of the diesel engine, and will over time actually pay for themselves in gas savings, and will continue for years after they are paid for to keep your money in your pocket. Diesels are the wave of the future and more and more economy vehicles are being produced in diesel versions because they are capable of so much better economy.

Gudgeon pin

The gudgeon pin is that which connects the piston to the connecting rod and provides a bearing for the connecting rod to pivot as it moves. In very early engine designs (including those driven by steam and also many very large stationary or marine engines, the gudgeon pin is located in a sliding crosshead that connects to the piston via a rod.

The gudgeon pin is typically a forged short hollow rod made of a steel alloy of high strength and hardness that may be physically separated from both the connecting rod and piston or crosshead. The design of the gudgeon pin, especially in the case of small, high-revving automotive engines is challenging. The gudgeon pin has to operate under some of the highest temperatures experienced in the engine, with difficulties in lubrication due to its location, while remaining small and light so as to fit into the piston diameter and not unduly add to the reciprocating mass. The requirements for lightness and compactness demand a small diameter rod that is subject to heavy shear and bending loads, with some of the highest pressure loadings of any bearing in the whole engine. To overcome these problems, the materials used to make the gudgeon pin and the way it is manufactured are amongst the most highly-engineered of any mechanical component found in internal combustion engines.


Design Options

Gudgeon pins use two broad design configurations: semi-floating or fully-floating. In the semi-floating configuration, the pin is usually fixed relative to the piston by an interference fit with the journal in the piston. The connecting rod small end bearing thus acts as the bearing alone. In this configuration, only the small end bearing requires a bearing surface, if any. If needed, this is provided by either electroplating the small end bearing journal with a suitable metal, or more usually by inserting a bearing sleeve into the eye of the small end, which has an interference fit with the aperture of the small end. During overhaul, it is usually possible to replace this bearing sleeve if it is badly worn. The reverse configuration that is occasionally implemented is an interference fit with the small end eye instead, with the gudgeon pin journals in the piston functioning as bearings. This arrangement is usually more difficult to manufacture and service because two bearing surfaces or inserted sleeves complicate the design. In addition, the pin must be precisely set so that the small end eye is central. Because of thermal expansion considerations, this arrangement is more usual for single-cylinder engines as opposed to multiple cylinder engines with long cylinder blocks and crankcases.

In the fully-floating configuration, a bearing surface is created both between the small end eye and gudgeon pin and the journal in the piston. No interference fit is used in any instance and the pin 'floats' entirely on bearing surfaces. The average rubbing speed of each of the three bearings is halved and the load is shared across a bearing that is usually about three times the length of the semi-floating design with an interference fit with the piston.

Manifold vacuum in cars

Most automobiles use four-stroke otto cycle engines with multiple cylinders attached to a single intake manifold. During the induction stroke, the piston descends in the cylinder and the intake valve is open. As the piston descends it effectively increases the volume in the cylinder above it, setting up low pressure. This sucks in air through the intake manifold and carburetor or fuel injection system, where it is mixed with fuel. Because multiple cylinders suck on the manifold at different times in the engine cycle, there is almost constant suction through the inlet manifold from carburetor to engine.

To control the amount fuel/air mix entering the engine, a simple butterfly valve (the throttle) is generally fitted at the start of the intake manifold (just below the carburetor in carbureted engines). The butterfly valve is simply a circular disc fitted on a spindle, fitting inside the pipe work. It is connected to the accelerator pedal of the car, and is set to be fully open when the pedal is fully depressed and fully closed when the pedal is released. The butterfly valve often contains a small "idle cutout", a hole that allows small amounts of fuel/air mixture into the engine even when the valve is fully closed.

If the engine is operating under light or no load and intermediate throttle, the throttle is closed and the engine pumps the air out of the intake manifold as fast as it can leak in through the throttle. The engine speed is limited only by the amount of fuel/air mixture that is available in the manifold. Under full throttle and light load, other effects (such as valve float, turbulence in the cylinders, or ignition timing) limit engine speed so that the manifold pressure can increase -- but in practice, parasitic drag on the internal walls of the manifold, plus the restrictive nature of the venturi at the heart of the carburetor, means that a low pressure will always be set up as the engine's internal volume exceeds the amount of the air the manifold is capable of delivering.

If the engine is operating under heavy load at wide throttle openings (such as accelerating from a stop or pulling the car up a hill) then engine speed is limited by the load and minimal vacuum will be created. Engine speed is low but the butterfly valve is fully open. Since the pistons are descending more slowly than under no load, the pressure differences are less marked and parasitic drag in the induction system is negligible. The engine pulls air into the cylinders at the full ambient pressure.

Vacuum is created in some situations. On deceleration or when descending a hill, the throttle will be closed and a low gear selected to control speed. The engine will be rotating fast due to the fact that the road wheels and transmission are moving quickly, but the butterfly valve will be fully closed. The flow of air through the engine is strongly restricted by the throttle, producing a strong vacuum on the engine side of the butterfly valve which will tend to limit the speed of the engine. This phenomenon, known as compression braking, is often used in engine braking to prevent acceleration or even to slow down with minimal or no brake usage (as when descending a long or steep hill). Note that although "compression braking" and "engine braking" are sometimes used to describe the same thing, "compression braking" here refers to the phenomenon itself while "engine braking" refers to the driver's usage of the phenomenon. Compression braking can be greatly increased by closing the exhaust with a valve on the over-run, which is often done on large trucks.


Uses of manifold vacuum

This low (or negative) pressure can be put to uses. A pressure gauge measuring the manifold pressure can be fitted to give the driver an indication of how hard the engine is working and can be used to achieve maximum momentary fuel efficiency by adjusting driving habits: minimizing manifold vacuum increases momentary efficiency. A weak manifold vacuum under closed-throttle conditions shows that the butterfly valve or internal components of the engine are worn, preventing good pumping action by the engine and reducing overall efficiency.

Vacuum is often used to drive auxiliary systems on the vehicle. Vacuum-assist brake servos, for example, use atmospheric pressure pressing against the engine manifold vacuum to increase pressure on the brakes. Since braking is nearly always accompanied by the closing of the throttle and associated high manifold vacuum, this system is simple and almost foolproof. Petrol engine 4x4 vehicles or older petrol-engine trucks used for towing sometimes have a vacuum tank fitted to allow vacuum to be available at all times to provide power to run trailer-mounted braking systems.

Some cars built before the 1960s used manifold vacuum to drive windscreen wipers via a small piston and valve arrangement connected to the wiper mechanism. This system was simple and reliable, but meant that the speed of the wipers changed often- speeding up as the car went downhill and slowing down or stopping as the car accelerated.


Manifold vacuum in diesel engines

Many diesel engines do not have butterfly valve throttles. The manifold is connected directly to the air intake and the only suction created is that caused by the descending piston with no venturi to increase it, and the engine power is controlled by varying the amount of fuel that is injected into the cylinder by a fuel injection system. This assists in making diesels much more efficient than petrol engines.

If vacuum is required (vehicles that can be fitted with both petrol and diesel engines often have systems requiring it), a butterfly valve connected to the throttle can be fitted to the manifold. This reduces efficiency and is still not as effective as it is not connected to a venturi. Since low-pressure is only created on the over-run (such as when descending hills with a closed throttle), not over a wide range of situations as in a petrol engine, a vacuum tank is fitted.

Most diesel engines now have a separate vacuum pump ("exhauster") fitted to provide vacuum at all times, at all engine speeds.

Many new BMW petrol engines do not use a throttle valve in normal running, but instead use "Valvetronic" variable-lift intake valves to control the amount of air entering the engine. Like a diesel engine, manifold vacuum is practically non-existent in these engines and an exhauster must be added to power the brake servo. Valvetronic requires very high modulus valve springs and results in a heavy valvetrain, so despite its advantages in fuel economy, it is currently unsuitable for high-revving engines.

Variable Length Intake Manifold

Variable Length Intake Manifold (VLIM) is an automobile engine manifold technology. As the name implies, VLIM can vary the length of the intake tract in order to optimize power and torque, as well as provide better fuel efficiency.

There are two main effects of variable intake geometry:

* Swirl
Variable geometry can create a beneficial air swirl pattern in the combustion chamber. The swirls help distribute the fuel and form a homogeneous air-fuel mixture which ignites without engine knocking. At low rpm, the speed of the airflow is increased by directing the air through a longer path with limited capacity (i.e., cross-sectional area), but the shorter and larger path opens when the load increases so that a greater amount of air can enter the chamber. In DOHC designs, the air paths are often connected to separate intake valves so the shorter path can be excluded by de-activating the intake valve itself.

* Pressurization
A tuned intake path can have a light pressurizing effect similar to a low-pressure supercharger due to Helmholtz resonance. However, this effect occurs only over a narrow engine speed band. A variable intake can create two or more pressurized "hot spots", increasing engine output.

Many automobile manufacturers use similar technology with different names. Another common term for this technology is Variable Resonance Induction System (VRIS).

* Audi - 2.8-liter V6 gas engine (1991-98); 3.6 and 4.2 liter V8 engines, 1987-present

* Alfa Romeo - 2.0 TwinSpark 16v - 155 ps(114 kW)

* BMW DIVA

* Ferrari - 360 Modena, 550 Maranello

* Ford DSI (Dual-Stage Intake) - on their Duratec 2.5 and 3.0 liter V6s and it was also found on the Yamaha V6 in the Taurus SHO.

* Ford - The Ford Modular V8 engines sport either the Intake Manifold Runner Control (IMRC) for 4V engines, or the Charge Motion Control Valve (CMCV) for 3V engines.

* General Motors - 3.9L LZ8/LZ9 V6, 3.2L LA3 V6

* GM Daewoo - DOHC versions of E-TEC II engines

* Honda - Integra, Legend, NSX, Prelude

* Hyundai - XG V6

* Jaguar - AJ-V6

* Lancia VIS

* Mazda VICS (Variable Intake Control System) is used in the Mazda B engine family of straight-4, and VRIS (Variable Resistance Induction System) in the Mazda K engine family of V6 engines. An updated version of this technology is employed on the new Mazda Z engine, which is also used by Ford as the Duratec.

* Mercedes-Benz

* Mitsubishi Cyclone is used on the 2.0L I4 4G63 engine family.

* Nissan I4, V6, V8

* Opel (or Vauxhall) TwinPort - modern versions of Ecotec Family 1 and Ecotec Family 0 straight-4 engines; a similar technology is used in 3.2 L 54° V6 engine

* Peugeot 2.2 L I4, 3.0 L V6

* Porsche VarioRam - 964, 993, 996, Boxster

* Proton - Campro CPS and VIM (still under testing)

* Renault - Clio 2.0RS

* Toyota T-VIS - (Toyota Variable Induction System) used in the early versions of the 3S-GE and 4A-GE families.

* Volkswagen - 1.6 L I4, VR6, W8

* Volvo - VVIS (Volvo Variable Induction System) Volvo_B52_engine as found on the Volvo_850 and S70/V70 vehicles, and their successors. Longer inlet ducts used between 1500 and 4100 RPM at 80% load or higher.

Suzuki SX4 (2007)

The 2007 Suzuki SX4 AWD is a small hatchback station wagon designed for urban commuting. But we also drove it long distances on the highway, where its performance was competent, but less than thrilling.

At urban street speeds of 25 to 40 mph, it's zippy. It easily moves through city traffic. It is agile enough to stay out of the way of big delivery and construction trucks, even when the drivers of those behemoths seem intent on blocking the SX4's path and squishing it and everything else in its subcompact category.

As a result, city driving in the SX4 is enjoyable. At a base price of $14,999, the car is cheap enough to free you of the anxiety associated with driving high-end automobiles in downtown areas. Many of you know the feeling: "Stay away from my Lexus! You're too close to my Mercedes-Benz! If you scratch my Cadillac, if you bump my BMW, you're gonna pay."

In comparison, driving the SX4 is akin to strolling a boulevard sidewalk in a favorite pair of sneakers. They feel good, look good. You wouldn't deliberately scuff or muddy them. But you wouldn't have a heart attack if you did.

Exterior design is cute, attractive enough to draw affectionate smiles. The interior is simple, yet elegant. And it's big enough -- as Ria so amply demonstrated with nuclear and extended family members--to comfortably seat five people.

The excess fat is in the SX4's three-way all-wheel-drive system, which can be locked into full four-wheel-drive for better traction, adjusted for automatic wheel-to-wheel power shifts in all-wheel-drive, or allowed to operate in front-wheel-drive only. Choice is wonderful. But so much choice in a small economy car is unwarranted and harmful to something that really matters in this league--fuel economy.

the SX4 remains a worthy competitor in this segment. It is loaded with standard equipment--four-wheel disc brakes with antilock protection, side air bags, front and rear head air bags, power windows and locks, a four-speaker MP3 audio system, and a transferable 100,000-mile or seven-year warranty to help support resale value. It is well-built and affordable. For many city dwellers, especially those living on tight budgets, it's a good deal.

Electronic Stability Control

You are looking for just the right type and kind of parts and accessories that you would like to add to your vehicle. You simply cannot afford to purchase a new vehicle that is why you have decided to rather replace worn out parts and add some new accessories. You have been scouring the market and you have trimmed down your list to a couple of Accel wires, a Catco converter, and a Gibson Exhaust. But did you ever consider adding a feature like the Electronic Stability Control, or the ESC?

Continental Teves has got an ESC that they are currently offering the market. Their Electronic Stability Control is what they define as ?a stability enhancement system designed to electronically detect and assist drivers in critical driving situations and under adverse conditions.? What the Continental Teves ESC also boasts is that it actually does this automatically. So that means that the driver of the vehicle equipped with the ESC would be assisted by the ESC even without sending out commands to the vehicle.

So you may now ask, what exactly are the advantages that you get if you have the ESC installed in your vehicle? Well, you can actually say that this really good feature continuously compares the intended course of the driver with the actual course and direction that the vehicle is taking. And if there are disparities or differences between the two, the ESC is the one who is responsible for compensating and making up for the difference. Along with that, the ESC is the one very much responsible for keeping your vehicle on the road and on the side of safety during situations where the vehicle may actually be veering out of control. The ESC senses situations like wheel lock ups and spins as well as total loss of control of the vehicle. And when it does, the feature would make sure that the vehicle would still be on the safe side and not headed into danger.

6L80 RWD six-speed

The Hydra-Matic 6L80 six-speed automatic transmission was the first of four variants in the rear-wheel drive transmission family designed with modular flexibility and compatibility with advanced electronic controls. It also features clutch-to-clutch operation, manual range selection and an integrated 32-bit electro-hydraulic controller. It debuted in 2006 on the Cadillac XLR-V, STS-V and Chevrolet Corvette, where it is offered with paddle-shift control.

The 6L80 also is tailored for the heavy-duty requirements of SUVs and trucks, and is offered on GM’s 2007 full-size SUVs equipped with the Vortec 6.2L V-8, such as the GMC Yukon Denali and Cadillac Escalade. In all applications, the 6L80 has a wide, 6.04:1 overall ratio – including two overdrive gears – that helps deliver up to 7 percent improved 0 – 60 mph performance and up to 4 percent improved fuel economy.

The 6L80’s six forward gears have smaller “steps” between them, which bolsters both performance and the feeling of smoothness. The smaller steps also enable a steep, 4.02:1 first gear, which provides an improved-performance launch feel. And with two overdrive gears, engine rpm is reduced by approximately 9 percent at 60 mph – a reduction of about 1,350 rpm.

A 32-bit electro-hydraulic control module optimizes transmission performance according to a variety of vehicle inputs, while also enabling features including tow/haul mode, auto grade braking and manual range selection. The controller is integrated within the transmission.

Tow/haul mode is a driver-selectable feature of the 6L80 that reduces shift busyness when towing or hauling a heavy load. The feature is complemented by manual range selection, which allows the driver to block out upper gears and select desired gears for unique driving conditions, such as towing on a steep grade. The manual range selection feature increases the feeling of control by holding the gear pre-selected by the driver. Electronic safeguards prevent the transmission from being shifted in a manner that could cause engine damage or loss of vehicle control. Auto grade braking is available when the tow/haul mode is selected and the transmission is not in the range selection mode.

GMC Sierra 1500 is made with rural America in mind

I have a theory about big pickup trucks and why there are so many of them in places such as Luray and the swamp and bayou towns of my home state, Louisiana. Trucks are practical. They carry and pull lots of stuff, much of it heavy and unglamorous. Terrain and weather in those regions often are challenging. Two-wheel-drive wimpmobiles don't measure up to conditions. And most of the people in those areas are workers, people who turn wrenches, plant fields, lift bales and use hammers and saws as part of their daily regimen. They need vehicles that work as hard as they do.

But, in a way, those rural truck drivers and owners are as much victims of automotive illusion as their paper-pushing, word-processing cousins in the city, where sports cars, luxury sedans, and super-bling sport-utility vehicles reign.

Cars and trucks are more than the sums of their parts. They have a meaning far beyond themselves. The city slicker in the high-end sedan is telling the world that he or she has arrived, if only at an elevated place in his or her own mind. The owner of a pickup truck in small-town America is declaring his or her just-folks status -- a sort of down-to-earth ruggedness, an awareness that getting close to nature also means getting dirty, dented and scratched, a belief that only trucks are worthy of that bruising communion.

That is why there are so many pickup trucks in rural and small-town America.

Luray and similar towns constitute the America that General Motors is wooing with its big-muscled Sierra 1500. It is the America that Ford is going after with its F-Series pickups, and that Nissan is trying to claim with its Titan pickups, and that Toyota is pursuing with its broad-shouldered, giant-braked Tundra CrewMax.

That America is not going away anytime soon. As long as it remains, the War of the Pickups will rage. With its GMC Sierra 1500 and several other models, GM is hoping to win with a combination of power and common sense, finesse and brutality.

The GMC Sierra 1500, for example, uses a GM technology called "active fuel management.' It is a computer-assisted system that shuts off four of the engine's eight cylinders at moderate speeds, or when the truck is carrying nothing except the driver and a passenger or two. At higher speeds and with heavier loads, when more power is needed, all eight cylinders go to work. The upshot is a full-size, four-wheel-drive truck that can complete a 400-mile round-trip journey, including several side-road diversions, with 120 miles worth of regular unleaded gasoline left in its 26-gallon tank.

In the past, GM seemed to care little about the wide seams between panels in its pickup trucks, or about mundane materials and interior layouts of those vehicles. The seams in the new GMC Sierra 1500 are tight. Interior materials are high quality. And although the passenger cabin still bespeaks "work truck,' it is much more attractive and comfortable than the cabins of any of its predecessors.

It is a likable truck, which is why, I suppose, there are so many of them running around rural Virginia. It fits well with the landscape of the Shenandoah Valley.

6L50 RWD and AWD six-speed

Hydra-Matic 6L50 six-speed transmission debuts in certain 2007 Cadillac STS rear- and all-wheel drive performance sedans and the V-8-powered SRX crossover SUV. The 6L50 is the second model of four new variants in the RWD six-speed transmission family. The 6L50 is designed with the same modular flexibility as the larger 6L80 and is fully compatible by using the same advanced electronic controls. As with the 6L80, the 6L50’s gearset configuration enables the same 6.04 wide overall ratio.

As with other GM six-speeds, the 6L50 delivers smaller steps between gears, enabling the vehicle to quickly find the best gear. A higher numerical first gear delivers strong acceleration from a standstill and two overdrive gears enable improved fuel economy through lower engine rpms at cruising speed. Also, the lower rpm achieved with the sixth gear reduces engine noise and vibration on the highway.

The 6L50 also uses the Driver Shift Control feature, which allows the driver to shift the transmission like a clutchless manual gearbox. Also, the transmission is calibrated to override the automatic gear selection during closed-throttle, high-lateral acceleration maneuvers, rapidly downshifting with nearly synchronous engine speed matching for quick power-up when the throttle is reopened. This gives the feel of a manual transmission during deceleration. Electronic safeguards prevent over-revving.

6T70 and 6T75 FWD transmissions

The Hydra-Matic 6T70 and 6T75 six-speed automatics are advanced transmissions with clutch-to-clutch shift operation for front- and all-wheel drive vehicles. The transmissions are based on a common design, with the 6T75 rated for higher torque capacity. The 6T70 debuts on the Saturn Aura and on a Pontiac G6 model; the 6T75 will be offered on the Saturn Outlook

The 6T70/75’s clutch-to-clutch operation and 6.04:1 overall ratio help the transmission deliver both performance and fuel economy, enabling up to 7 percent improved performance and up to 4 percent improved fuel economy when compared with current front-wheel drive four-speed automatics. Both transmissions use a very high numerical 4.48:1 first gear, which helps deliver exceptional launch feel, and a 0.74:1 overdrive sixth gear, which reduces engine rpms at high speeds, thereby reducing engine noise and vibrations. Fifth gear is 1:1 direct drive.

With its wide ratio and strong capacity, the 6T70/75 has the capability to transfer more torque to the drive wheels, particularly in all-wheel drive applications. It also helps vehicles, such as crossovers like the Outlook, to feel even livelier at lower speeds, particularly at launch or when pulling away from a stoplight.

The 6T70/75 offers the capability of driver shift control (DSC), which allows the driver to use tap-up/tap-down shifting to select the desired gear for specific road conditions, such as driving up a steep hill. A sophisticated transmission electro-hydraulic control module (TEHCM) is mounted inside the 6T70 and 6T75, reducing vehicle complexity. Similar to the control system used in the six-speed Hydra-Matic rear-wheel drive transmissions, the TEHCM offers improved quality through its hard-wired connections. The unit is located entirely within the transmission and operates while bathed in transmission fluid. Locating the controller internally facilitates the modular design and assembly strategy while also shielding the unit from the outside environment.

The 6T70/75 was co-developed with Ford Motor Co. Co-development of the transmission allowed it to reach production in less time and enabled each company to reduce development costs by as much as 50 percent. A common on-axis design and many common components are shared between GM and Ford Motor Co. The controls, calibrations and operation of the transmissions are unique to each company.

GM 6L50 transmission

The 6L50 (and similar 6L45) is a 6-speed longitudinally-mounted automatic transmission produced by General Motors. It is very similar in design to the larger 6L80/6L90, and will be produced at the GM Powertrain plant in Strasbourg, France. It will debut for the 2007 model year on the V8-powered versions of the Cadillac STS sedan and Cadillac SRX crossover, and will eventually replace the 5L40-E and 5L50 in GM's lineup.

The 6L50 is adaptable to rear-wheel drive and all-wheel drive applications. It can accommodate engines with up to 332 ft·lbf (450 N·m) of torque, and vehicles with a GVWR of 5,000 lb (2,268 kg).

Gear ratios:
1 4.06
2 2.37
3 1.55
4 1.16
5 0.85
6 0.67
R 3.20


Applications:

* 2008- Cadillac CTS
* 2007- Cadillac SRX
* 2007- Cadillac STS
* 2007 BMW X3 3.0
* 2007 BMW X5 3.0
* 2007 BMW 328 coupe

F20 manual transmission

The F20 manual transmission was fitted to many vehicles in the European General Motors production line up including the Opel Calibra. It was a 5 speed transmission with the following configuration:

Clutch Diameter 9.0 inches
1st Gear Ratio 3.55:1
2nd Gear Ratio 2.16:1
3rd Gear Ratio 1.48:1
4th Gear Ratio 1.13:1
5th Gear Ratio 0.89:1
Reverse Gear Ratio 3.33:1
Final Drive Ratio 3.55:1

There have been many references to the numbering designation that Vauxhall elected to utilse for gearboxes, one of the more common arguments is that it refers to the lb.ft torque capacity of the gearbox, in this case being a 200 lb.ft torque limit. Other arguments include that it is simply related to the engine size (the F20 gearbox was often fitted to 2.0L engine vehicles).

As an example the F20 transmission was fitted to the Opel Calibra 2.0L models (C20XE and X20XEV engined models)

Roto Hydramatic

Roto Hydramatic (sometimes spelled Roto Hydra-Matic or Roto-Hydramatic) was an automatic transmission built by General Motors and used on some Oldsmobile and Pontiac models from 1961 to 1964. It was based on the earlier, four-speed Hydramatic, but was more compact, providing only three forward speeds plus a small torque converter in place of the Hydramatic's fluid coupling. Oldsmobile, one of the users of this transmission, called the torque converter's stator the "Accel-A-Rotor." The lightweight, aluminum-cased transmission was sometimes nicknamed the "Slim Jim."

There were two models of the Roto Hydramatic:
the lightweight Model 5, which weighed 145 lb (66 kg) and had ratios of 3.03, 1.58, and 1.00, and
the larger Model 10, which weighed 154 lb (70 kg) and had ratios of 2.93, 1.56, and 1.00.

The stator provided a maximum torque multiplication of 1.2:1. In 1961-62 the "Model 5" was used on the Opel Kapitan, Vauxhall Velox/Cresta and EK Holden. The Roto Hydramatic was cheaper and smoother than the previous Hydramatic, but its slower, softer shifts sacrificed performance for refinement. Owners discovered that it was also less durable than Hydramatic, and was prone to various mechanical problems.

The Roto Hydramatic was phased out after the 1964 model year in favor of the two-speed Jetaway and three-speed Turbo-Hydramatic. As with previous Hydramatic transmissions, auto safety experts criticized GM for the Hydramatic design which had a shift quadrant sequence of Park-Neutral-Drive-Second-Low-Reverse (P-N-D-S-L-R) due to the placement of reverse adjacent to a forward gear as opposed to the more common P-R-N-D-S-L sequence found in most other automatic transmissions at the time that placed "reverse" between "park" and "neutral", which was also incorporated in the new Turbo Hydramatic design introduced on Buicks and Cadillacs in 1964, and then other GM divisions in 1965. The Roto Hydramatic was used in all full-sized Oldsmobile models including the Dynamic 88, Super 88, Ninety-Eight and Starfire from 1961 to 1964 as well as the compact Oldsmobile F-85 from 1961 to 1963. Pontiac used the Roto Hydramatic from 1961 to 1964 on its shorter-wheelbase full-sized cars including the Catalina, Ventura and Grand Prix, but continued with the older four-speed Super Hydramatic design in the longer-wheelbase Star Chief and Bonneville models.

Hydramatic Design

The Hydramatic used a two-element fluid coupling (not a torque converter, which has at least three elements, the pump, turbine and stator) and three planetary gearsets, providing four forward speeds plus reverse. Standard ratios for the original Hydra-Matic were 3.82:1, 2.63:1, 1.45:1 and 1.00:1 in automotive applications, and 4.08:1, 2.63:1, 1.55:1 and 1.00:1 in light truck and other commercial applications. The Jetaway Hydramatic used 3.96:1, 2.55:1, 1.55:1, and 1.00:1.

A unique feature of the Hydramatic design was the manner in which the fluid coupling was interposed in the power flow. In modern automatics, all engine power passes through the torque converter and then on to the gear train. Unless the converter includes a clutch to lock the turbine to the pump, some slippage will always occur, which can have a significant negative effect on efficiency and fuel economy. This was not the case with the Hydramatic.

In first gear, power flow was through the forward planetary gear assembly (either 1.45:1 or 1.55:1 reduction, depending on the model), then the fluid coupling, followed by the rear gear assembly (2.63:1 reduction) and through the reverse gear assembly (normally locked) to the output shaft. That is, the input torus of the fluid coupling ran at a lower speed than the engine, due to the reduction of the forward gear assembly. This produced an exceptionally smooth startup because of the relatively large amount of slippage initially produced in the fluid coupling. This slippage quickly diminished as engine RPM increased.

When the transmission upshifted to second gear, the forward gear assembly locked and the input torus now ran at engine speed. This had the desirable effect of "tightening" the coupling and reducing slippage, but unfortunately also produced a somewhat abrupt shift. It wasn't at all uncommon for the vehicle to lurch forward during the 1-2 shift, especially when the throttle was wide open.

Upon shifting to third, the forward gear assembly went back into reduction and the rear gear assembly locked. Due to the manner in which the rear gear assembly was arranged, the coupling went from handling 100 percent of the engine torque to about 40 percent, with the balance being handled solely by the gear train. This greatly reduced slippage, which fact was audible by the substantial reduction that occurred in engine RPM when the shift occurred.

The shift from third to fourth gear locked the forward gear assembly, producing 1.00:1 transmission. The fluid coupling now only handled about 25 percent of the engine torque, reducing slippage to a negligible amount. The result was a remarkably efficient level of power transfer at highway speeds, something that torque converter equipped automatics could not achieve without the benefit of a converter clutch.

Many Hydramatics did not execute the 2-3 shift very well, as the shift involved the simultaneous operation of two bands and two clutches. Accurate coordination of these components was difficult to achieve, even in new transmissions. As the transmission's seals and other elastomers aged, the hydraulic control characteristics changed and the 2-3 shift would either cause a momentary flare (runup in engine speed) or tie-up (a short period where the transmission is actually in two gears at the same time), the latter often contributing to failure of the front band.

From 1939 through 1950, the reverse anchor was used to lock the reverse unit ring gear from turning by engaging external teeth machined into that ring gear. From 1951 on, a cone clutch did the same thing when oil pressure was up, and a spring loaded parking pawl was allowed to lock the same ring gear in the absence of oil pressure. This worked better as the anchor would not grind on the external teeth if that ring gear were turning (that is, unless the engine stalled as reverse was engaged). Reverse was obtained by applying torque from the front unit (band on, in reduction) through the fluid coupling to the rear unit sun gear. The planet carrier of this gearset was splined to the planet carrier of the reverse unit. The rear unit ring gear hub had a small gear machined on its end which served as the reverse unit sun gear. Because the rear unit band was not applied for reverse, the rear unit and reverse unit compounded causing the combined planet carriers to rotate opposit to the input torque and at a further reduced speed (similar to the Model T Ford reverse). The output shaft was machined onto the rear unit and reverse unit planet carriers.

Shutting off the engine caused the transmission oil pressure to fall off. If the selector lever was in reverse or moved to reverse after the engine stopped, two mechanical parts combined to provide a parking brake. The reverse unit ring gear was held stationary by the reverse anchor. The drive shaft could still turn causing the reverse unit sungear and attached rear unit ring gear to rotate at a very high speed, were it not for the fact that the rear unit ring gear band was now applied by a heavy spring. Usually, bands are applied by a servo and released by spring pressure, but in this case, the band was held off by the servo and applied by spring pressure (actually, when the engine was running, the band was applied by a combination of spring pressure assisted by oil pressure). With the engine off, this brake band acting on the rear unit ring gear had a tremendous mechanical advantage. Since the rear unit ring gear with its attached reverse unit sun gear and the reverse unit ring gear were both locked to the transmission case, the planet carriers and driveshaft could not turn. As such, it provided and effective driveshaft mounted parking brake to be used alone or supplementing the hand brake.

2007 Saturn Outlook

The Saturn Outlook is a premium mid-size crossover SUV which debuted at the New York International Auto Show. The Outlook is based on the new GM Lambda platform, which it shares with the GMC Acadia and Buick Enclave. The Outlook features the lowest sticker price among GM's Lambda crossover SUVs.
The family friendly Saturn Outlook can tow up to 4,500 pounds when properly equipped.

Type:
A front-wheel drive large crossover SUV. All-wheel drive available.

Models:
EX, XR

Retail price*:
$27,990 (FWD, XE)
$32,290 (AWD, XR)
$44,000 (fully loaded AWD, XR)

Engines:
# 3.6 DOHC V-6 with single exhaust, 270-hp, 248-lb-ft torque.
# 3.6-liter DOHC V-6 with dual exhaust, 275-hp, 251-lb-ft torque.

Transmission:
6-speed automatic

EPA mileage:
# Single exhaust: 18 mpg/26 mpg
# Dual exhaust: 17 mpg / 25 mpg

Notes:
The $495 captain chair option offers the most comfortable ride for those in the back but limits seating to seven.


Performance:
Decent power and good handling. Easier to maneuver than size suggests.

Exterior:
Strong lines make the Outlook distinctive and easily recognizable.

Interior:
Much larger inside. Comfortable and versatile.

Safety:
Standard front and side curtain airbags, antilock brakes. Backup camera.

The Smart Slide provides easy entry.
Image

The second row bench seat includes a 60/40 split.

Detonation, Knock, and Pre-Ignition 101

As you probably have already figured out, detonation (aka "knock") is a big issue in the world of forced induction. You probably know that detonation is a bad thing, and that by adding a supercharger (or any forced induction power adder), you must take additional measures to avoid detonation, especially if your engine has other modifications. Normally the simple solution to stop detonation is to run higher octane fuel... but before we get ahead of ourselves, let's start from the beginning.

What is detonation / knock?

Under normal conditions, the combusting air and fuel mixture inside the combustion chamber ignites in a controlled manner. The mixture is ignited by the spark, normally in the center of the cylinder, and a flame front moves from the spark towards the outside of the cylinder in a contolled burn. Detonation occurs when air and fuel that is ahead of the flame front ignites before the flame front arrives because it becomes overheated. Under these conditions, the combustion becomes uncontrolled and sporadic and often produces a pinging noise, or a "knock" noise when the conditions become worse.

So far, detonation sounds cool... why is it bad?

Detonation is definitely not cool. Detonation causes sudden pressure changes in the cylinder, and extreme temperature spikes that can be very damaging on engine pistons, rings, rods, gaskets, bearings, and even the cylinder heads. Even the best engine components cannot withstand severe detonation for more than a few seconds at a time. More severe detonation obviously leads to more severe forms of engine damage. If there is enough heat and pressure in the combustion chamber, detonation can begin to occur before the spark plug even fires, which would normally initiate the combustion. Under these circumstances, known as "pre-ignition", the piston may be travelling up towards a wave of compressed, exploding gas. These are the worst kinds of detonation conditions, and can bend con-rods and destroy pistons.

What causes detonation?

Detonation occurs when several conditions / factors inside the combustion chamber exist at the same time. Increased compression, high temperatures, lean fuel/air mixture, advanced ignition timing, and lower octane fuels are all factors that PROMOTE detonation conditions. The good news is that, because there are so many factors in play, you can always find a way to eliminate detonation if it exists.

So, where do superchargers fit in?

A supercharger increases the amount of air inside the combustion chamber, which in turn increases the compression inside the combustion chamber. Along with increased compression comes higher temperatures and higher pressures, which as we know, tend to increase the chances that some form of detonation will occur. In order to compensate for the increased compression and heat, we must change one or more of the other factors / conditions to move us away from our detonation threshhold. Tuning the supercharger system to the engine in this way for maximum performance without detonation is something that supercharger manufactuers do so, chances are, you won't have to worry about it unless you do other modifications to your engine that place you closer to your detonation threshhold.

How do I get rid of it?

The two most common tricks used by supercharger manufactuers and engine tuners looking to obtain maximum performance without detonation is 1. use higher octane fuel, and 2. retard the ignition timing.

Higher octane fuel burns more controllably and is not as likely to combust before the flame front. This is why racing engines use 100+ octane gasoline. The ONLY benefit of racing gasoline is that it moves you away from the detonation threshhold, which allows you to be more aggressive with power producing factors - i.e. raise compression, advance timing, etc. This is why you'll be disappointed if you put racing gasoline in your mom's bone-stock '82 Toyota Cressida thinking you'll turn it into a race car. If you don't have detonation, the increased octane will do you no good. For cars designed for daily street driving, you obviously won't want to fill up with 100+ octane fuel every week at the tune of 5 bucks a gallon. This is why supercharger manufactuers tune their supercharger systems to run properly without detonation on 91 octane fuel - aka "premium" at your local gas station (in some states premium gasoline is around 93 octane).

Retarding the ignition timing will delay the timing of the spark, which also moves you away from your detonation threshhold. Most popular "power programmers" or "chips" increase engine power by advancing the ignition timing, and requiring you to run a higher octane fuel to avoid detonation. These work great, except the advanced ignition timing is NOT compatible with most superchargers, unless you're happy to run 100 octane fuel. In fact, many supercharger systems include an "ignition boost retard" that retards the ignition timing when it senses boost from the supercharger. This allows you to maintain stock performance while not under boost, yet still remain safe while the supercharger is making its boost (and power).

Another way to avoid detonation is to cool the incoming air charge to lower the temperature inside the combustion chamber. On a supercharged application, this task can be handled by an intercooler or by a water injection system (less common). The intercooler takes the incoming air charge and passes it over a series of air-cooled or water-cooled fins and ducts, thus cooling the air in the same way that a radiator cools your engine's coolant. Intercoolers are thus very popular in higher output supercharger systems, where detonation becomes more of a problem. Often times, the intercooler allows you to run more boost and also allows you to eliminate the ignition boost retard, meaning you'll notice increased performance, and still experience no detonation. Another way to lower the temperature of the combusting air and fuel is to run cooler heat range spark plugs. Many supercharger manufacturers will recommend cooler plugs for you supercharged engine.

Because lean condition (fuel starvation) also contributes to detonation, it is important to make sure that the fuel system (pump, injectors, etc.) is capable of delivering the increased fuel requirements of the supercharged engine. Often times, an otherwise perfectly tuned engine will experience detonation just because the fuel pump can't deliver enough fuel to the engine. Upgrading certain fuel components is almost always necessary when supercharging an engine. Most supercharger systems normally include the upgraded fuel components if they are necessary. If you are installing a supercharger on an engine with other modifications, make sure you consider the additional fuel requirements and compensate with larger injectors and / or a bigger fuel pump.

Some modern vehicles come with "knock sensors" that listen for detonation, and automatically retard the ignition timing to eliminate detonation. Although these devices are effective in preventing engine damage, they are not tuned for performance, so you should not rely on the knock sensors and expect your engine to run its best.

Conclusion

Altough detonation can be potentially damaging to an engine, a simple understanding of what it is, and what causes it, will help you stay away from your detonation threshhold. Pay attention to "knock" and pinging noises that come from your engine becuase they could indicate detonation inside the combustion chamber and should be dealt with immediately. If you're looking for a new supercharger system, don't worry too much about detonation - the manufacturers have designed the system for use on your stock engine, and if you follow the manufactuer's fuel recommendations, you will not have a detonation problem. If you ever do notice detonation, perhaps from bad (low octane) gasoline or extremely high air temperatures, just drive with a light foot until you are able to resolve the cause of the problem.

2008 Chrysler Sebring convertible

The Sebring's cabin offers a number of amenities and easy-to-use controls.

Type:
A front-wheel drive, four-passenger convertible coupe.

Models:
Convertible, Touring and Limited
Retail price*:
$26,145 -- $38,675

Engines
# 2.4-liter, 4-cylinder, 173-hp, 166-lb-ft torque
# 2.7-liter, V-6, 189-hp, 191-lb-ft
# 3.5-liter, V-6, 235-hp, 232-lb-ft

Transmission:
4-speed on 2.4-liter and 2.7-liter engines, 6-speed automatic with clutch-less shifting on 3.5-liter.

EPA mileage
# 2.4-liter: 20 mpg city / 29 mpg highway
# 2.7-liter: 18 mpg / 26 mpg
# 3.5-liter: 16 mpg / 26 mpg

Notes: Chrysler offers three types of convertible tops. A vinyl top comes standard on the Convertible and Touring models. A cloth top is available in the Touring model as part of an optional $1,495 package. A hard top is available for $2,170. The Limited, which has a standard cloth top, can upgrade to the hard top for $1,995.
*Includes shipping

Performance :
Smooth and quiet ride with the top up. Handles well in the city and on the highway but the 2.4-liter engine leaves it underpowered and the 4-speed transmission on two models is outdated.

Exterior:
Long lines and standard 17-inch tires give this convertible a substantial look. The Sebring stands out.

Interior:
Well-appointed interior. Seats are comfortable and give the driver a commanding view of the road. Back seat still crowded. My Gig stereo system is a bonus; can burn CDs and provides a premium stereo.

Safety:
Excellent: Sebring offers more than 30 standard safety and security features, including electronic stability control and rollover mitigation.

History of Petroleum electric hybrid vehicle

In 1898 Ferdinand Porsche designed the Lohner-Porsche carriage, a series-hybrid vehicle that broke several Austrian speed records, and also won the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. Over 300 of the Lohner-Porsche carriages were sold to the public. As a series-hybrid, a gasoline engine powers a generator, which powered electric wheel motors. A large and heavy battery pack acted as an intermediate load-leveling device.

The 1915 Dual Power made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker had a four cylinder internal combustion engine and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (25 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (55 km/h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.

There have also been air engine hybrids where a small petrol engine powered a compressor. Several types of air engines also increased the range between fill-ups with up to 60% by absorbing ambient heat from its surroundings.

In 1959 the development of the first transistor-based electric car—the Henney Kilowatt—heralded the development of the electronic speed control that paved the way for modern hybrid electric cars. The Henney Kilowatt was the first modern production electric vehicle and was developed by a cooperative effort between National Union Electric Company, Henney Coachworks, Renault, and the Eureka Williams Company. Although sales of the Kilowatt were dismal, the development of the Kilowatt served was a historical "who's who" of electric propulsion technology.

A more recent working prototype of the electric-hybrid vehicle was built by Victor Wouk (one of the scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt and also brother of author Herman Wouk ). Wouk's work with electric hybrid vehicles in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the "Godfather of the Hybrid"). Wouk installed a prototype electric-hybrid drivetrain into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was killed by the EPA in 1976 while Eric Stork, the head of the EPA at the time, was accused of a prejudicial coverup[5]. Since then, hobbyists have continued to build hybrids but none was put into mass production by a major manufacturer until the waning years of the twentieth century.

The regenerative-braking hybrid, the core design concept of most production hybrids, was developed by Electrical Engineer David Arthurs around 1978 using off-the shelf components and an Opel GT. However the voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Mr. Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited ~75 mpg fuel efficiency and plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed nearly 84 mpg.

The Bill Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV)[6] program on September 29, 1993 that involved Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle. The NRC cited automakers’ moves to produce hybrid electric vehicles as evidence that technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers questioned whether the “Big Three” would be able to move from the concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3.

The program was replaced by the hydrogen focused FreedomCAR initiative of George W. Bush's administration in 2001. The focus of the FreedomCAR initiative being to fund research too high risk for the private sector to engage in with the long term goal of developing emission / petroleum free vehicles.

In the intervening period, the widest use of hybrid technology was actually in diesel-electric locomotives. It is also used in diesel-electric submarines, which operate in essentially the same manner as hybrid electric cars. However, in this case the goal was to allow operation underwater without consuming large amounts of oxygen, rather than economizing on fuel. Since then, many submarines have moved to nuclear power, which can operate underwater indefinitely, though a number of nations continue to rely on diesel-electric fleets.

Automotive hybrid technology became successful in the 1990s when the Honda Insight and Toyota Prius became available. These vehicles have a direct linkage from the internal combustion engine to the driven wheels, so the engine can provide acceleration power. The 2000s saw development of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which can be recharged from the electrical power grid and do not require conventional fuel for short trips. The Renault Kangoo was the first production model of this design, released in France in 2003. However, the environmental benefits of plug-in hybrids depend somewhat on the source of the electrical power. In particular, electricity generated with wind would be cleaner than electricity generated with coal, the most polluting source. On the other hand, electricity generated with coal in a central power plant is still much cleaner than pure gasoline propulsion, due to the much greater efficiencies of a central plant. Furthermore, coal is only one source of centrally generated power, and in some places such as California is only a minor contributor, overshadowed by natural gas and other cleaner sources.

The Prius has been in high demand since its introduction. Newer designs have more conventional appearance and are less expensive, often appearing and performing identically to their non-hybrid counterparts while delivering 50% better fuel efficiency. The Honda Civic Hybrid appears identical to the non-hybrid version, for instance, but delivers about 50 US mpg (4.7 L/100km). The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius improved passenger room, cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The Honda Insight, while not matching the demand of the Prius, is still being produced and has a devoted base of owners. Honda has also released a hybrid version of the Accord.

2005 saw the first hybrid sport utility vehicle (SUV) released, Ford Motor Company's Ford Escape Hybrid. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004 allowing Ford to use 20 patents from Toyota related to hybrid technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built. In exchange for the hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their European diesel engines to Toyota. Toyota announced model year 2005 hybrid versions of the Toyota Highlander and Lexus RX 400h with 4WD-i which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels negating the need for a differential. Toyota also plans to add hybrid drivetrains to every model it sells in the coming decade.

For 2007 Lexus offers a hybrid version of their GS sport sedan dubbed the GS450h with "well in excess of 300hp". The 2007 Camry Hybrid becomes available starting Summer 2006 in USA and Canada. The initial batch of Camry Hybrids are built in Japan; starting October 2006, Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky (TMMK) will also produce these hybrids. Also, Nissan announced the release of the Altima hybrid (technology supplied by Toyota) around 2007.

An R.L. Polk survey of 2003 model year cars showed that hybrid car registrations in the United States rose to 43,435 cars, a 25.8% increase from 2002 numbers. California, the nation's most populous state at one-eighth of the total population, had the most hybrid cars registered: 11,425. The proportionally high number may be partially due to the state's higher gasoline prices and stricter emissions rules, which hybrids generally have little trouble passing.

Honda, which offers Insight, Civic and Accord hybrids, sold 26,773 hybrids in the first 11 months of 2004. Toyota has sold a cumulative 306,862 hybrids between 1997 and November 2004, and Honda has sold a total of 81,867 hybrids between 1999 and November 2004.

Toyota MR2

After having been in the market for almost ten years, the SW20 had to move aside as Toyota released the new MR2, designated ZZW30. The new MR2 was, in a way, a return to the design concept of the AW11 since the weight of the car was once again dropped below a metric ton and it was significantly smaller than the SW20. The biggest change was, however, the replacement of the solid, T-Top, and sunroof roof options with a true convertible soft top, giving the car the 'Spyder' designation. Due to a new car design rule from SAE (The Society of Automotive Engineers), the pop-up headlights as seen on SW20 had to be removed.

Many claim that this car was inspired by Porsche Boxster which was released in 1996, due to its similar appearance. However, the first prototype of MR-S appeared in 1997 at Tokyo Motorshow, which had slightly more angled and rigid appearance than the current production model. The production model includes additional curves for more aerodynamic look and more appealing. The MR2 Spyder chief engineer Harunori Shiratori once said "First, we wanted true driver enjoyment, blending good movement, low inertia and light weight. Then, a long wheelbase to achieve high stability and fresh new styling; a mid-engine design to create excellent handling and steering without the weight of the engine up front; a body structure as simple as possible to allow for easy customizing, and low cost to the consumer."

In Japan, the car is called the MR-S, which purportedly is derived from the forementioned designation. Toyota changed the American name to "MR2 Spyder" reportedly because the idea of a car with the nickname of "Mrs." would sound funny. In spite of this effort, the car is referred to as the "Mrs. 2" by some enthusiasts. The 1999 MR2 Spyder was an element of Toyota Project Genesis, a failed effort to bring younger buyers to the marque in the United States.

The engine of the ZZW30 was the brand-new all-aluminium 1ZZ-FED, a 1794 cc I4. Like its predecessors, the engine used dual overhead camshafts and 16 valves. The intake camshaft's timing was adjustable via the VVT-i system, which was introduced earlier on the 1998 SW20. Unlike its predecessors, however, the engine was placed onto the car the other way round, making the exhaust manifold point towards the rear of the car. The 138 hp (104 kW) maximum power was quite a drop from the SW20 GT, but thanks to the lightness of the car it could move quite quickly, accelerating from 0 to 100 km/h in 7.0 to 8.3 s depending on the transmission option, the Sequential Manual being unable to launch and shift as quickly as the clutch operated manual. The car only weighs 975kg(2150lbs) with the 5 speed manual or 997kg(2200lbs) with the SMT, making this model MR2 the lightest of the MR2 series. In addition to the 5-speed manual transmission, a 5-Speed or 6 speed Sequential Manual Transmission (SMT) controllable from 2 pairs of buttons on the steering wheel was also available. SMT is standard feature in Australian market, however air conditioning was optional. After 2003, a 6-speed SMT was an option.

The feedback for the new model was somewhat mixed - others liked its return to the AW11's design concept, while the fans of the SW20 would've liked it to continue along the path of the previous model. All agreed, however, that the ZZW30 had nearly perfect handling, allowing one to brake into corners and throw the car through the corner in slight drift. The ZZW30 is considered to be the best-handling MR2. For example, Tiff Needell, a very experienced race driver and the former host of the BBC TV show Top Gear, praised the handling of the ZZW30. Although some complained of the relative lack of power the vehicle had, many owners have recently discovered a way to switch out the 1ZZ-FE engine in exchange for the 2ZZ-GE, bringing up the power to 164 hp(SAE Certified) or 180 hp as originally measured by Toyota under the old SAE Net rating. This drastically brings up the accelerating properties of the ZZW30. During a comparison test during a Japanese motorsports show, "NA vs. Turbo", the Techno Spirits ZZW30, outdrove several more powerful cars. However, the driver of the ZZW30, Manabu Orido, allowed the other vehicles (a much higher powered S15 Silvia, S14 Silvia, and Amuse S2000) to catch up (in an effort to demonstrate the difference between NA and turbo) and ended in the ZZW30 losing to the higher powered S15 Silvia. Although it lost, the ZZW30 proved the top-class handling abilities of the ZZW30. On race tracks, a stock ZZW30 has a superior handling around the corners but lacks power in the straights.

Techno Pro Spirit's MR-S was also the first car to be able to beat Tsuchiya's champion AE86 in its own grounds, the touge.

Another effective and typical modification to the MR-S is the addition of a turbocharger. Many companies such as Power Enterprise, Top Secret, Tom's, TTE, Monkeywrench Racing and Hass supply simple bolt-on kits for the MR-S. This simple addon can easily bring the car to 200bhp+, at only a low boost of 4-5psi. In a video by BMI, Tom's Turbo MR-S came only a split second behind the Techno 2zz MR-S at the touge. However, there is no doubt that the MR-S in turbo guise would easily outrun the 2zz MR-S in the straights.

In the JGTC/SuperGT GT300 class, Reckless's MR-S driven by Kota Sasaki & Tetsuya Yamano is the current 2005 champion. Previously in 2002 Morio Nitta & Shinichi Takagis' ARTA Toyota MR-S also won the GT300.

The MR-S was originally introduced in October of 1999 to the consumer market and received a sequential transmission in August 2000. For 2003, the ZZW30 received some exterior changes, including a new front bumper, front and rear lights, a new rear grille, and the computer also received an upgrade allowing the gears to change and engage much quicker than the pre-2003 models which were equipped with the sequential manual transmission. The air intakes on the sides of the car were now color coded and the interior was modified with new seats and a gauge cluster. The rear wheels were increased to 16" with larger 215 mm tires, while the front ones remained at 15" and 185 mm tread width. The suspension was uprated with new springs and shock absorbers and a brace was added to the bottom of the car to improve rigidity. A limited-slip differential was also available from the factory. For 2004, the body was strengthened, adding 10 kg to the vehicle's weight.

In July 2004, Toyota announced that the MR2 (as well as the Celica) would be discontinued in the US at the end of the 2005 model year because of increasing competition and lack of sales. [5] The ZZW30 sold 7,233 units in its debut year, falling to just 121 for the 2005 model, for a total of 23,868 through its six years of production in the US. However, it is still sold in Mexico, Europe and Japan. The 2006 model year is the last for the MR2, with the United Kingdom getting 300 final models in a special numbered TF300 series. A special 182 bhp turbocharged variant called the TTE Turbo (TTE standing for Toyota Team Europe) is available as a dealer installed package. This package is also available for fitting to older Mk. III MR2s.


MR-S V Edition

While the MR2 Spyder was not sold after 2005 in the United States, it will continue to be offered in Japan and the United Kingdom until early 2007. As a farewell to the MR2, Toyota is producing 1000 limited-edition "V Edition" MR-S cars for those respective markets. They are distinguished by different wheels, titanium interior accents, certain slightly modified body panels, a helical limited slip, and different steering wheel trim.

Car loan

Instead of going through a dealer for a car, you may have to go through a private dealing that requires you to get a personal loan. You will need to file a lot of paper work and be prepared to be at the creditor's office for at least an hour filling out all the paper work. When it comes to personal loans, they tend to be very specific. You need to make sure that you understand all the questions and answer them truthfully.

You don't want to claim that you are purchasing on thing and then buy something else. That's considered fraud and you may end up in a lot of trouble over the act. Don't break any laws trying to get a personal car loan. What you need to do is go to your bank or credit venue and ask them how and if you are eligible for any credit. They may just open up a line of credit for you, depending on the price of the car.

If you really want to avoid all the high interest rates, you may want to ask a close friend or family member with lots of money to help fund your new investment. You may be able to find someone willing to give you a personal loan, but make sure that you go to the bank and sign an IOU. This will help them feel secure about getting the money back and it is a legally binding contract. The thing with IOUs is that you have to come up with terms. You need to state the payment methods and when you will have the amount paid back. This is one way to avoid the interest rates, however, not always.

To go through a personal car loan with no hassle is impossible. You need to file all this paperwork at your bank if you plan on using them. You need to wait a long time to get approved. It could take a week or two for your credit to be approved. Personal loans are a hassle. You have to prove exactly what you plan on doing with the money. You need to give the creditor tons of information and practically your first-born.

To cut the hassle, you should go online to some of your credit card companies and see what the rates would be to get a loan for personal use so that you can purchase a car. Then you will get your response within a few days and be able to make the transaction if approved within a week.

Stratified charge engine

The stratified charge engine is a type of internal-combustion engine, similar in some ways to the Diesel cycle, but running on normal gasoline. The name refers to the layering of fuel/air mixture, the charge inside the cylinder.

In a traditional Otto cycle engine the fuel and air are mixed outside the cylinder and are drawn into it during the intake stroke. The air/fuel ratio is kept very close to stoichiometric, which is defined as the exact amount of air necessary for a complete combustion of the fuel. This mixture is easily ignited and burns smoothly.

The problem with this design is that after the combustion process is complete, the resulting exhaust stream contains a considerable amount of free single atoms of oxygen and nitrogen, the result of the heat of combustion splitting the O2 and N2 molecules in the air. These will readily react with each other to create NOx, a pollutant. A catalytic converter in the exhaust system re-combines the NOx back into O2 and N2 in modern vehicles.

A Diesel engine, on the other hand, injects the fuel into the cylinder directly. This has the advantage of avoiding premature spontaneous combustion—a problem known as detonation or ping that plagues Otto cycle engines—and allows the Diesel to run at much higher compression ratios. This leads to a more fuel-efficient engine. That is why they are commonly found in applications where they are being run for long periods of time, such as in trucks.

However the Diesel engine has problems as well. The fuel is sprayed right into the highly compressed air and has little time to mix properly. This leads to portions of the charge remaining almost entirely air and others almost entirely of unburnt fuel lacking for oxygen. This incomplete combustion leads to the presence of other pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the plainly visible exhaust soot.

The stratified charge design attempts to fix the problems with both fuels. It uses a direct-injection system, like the Diesel, with its inherent ability to be run at efficient high compressions. However, like the Otto, it relies on gasoline's ability to mix quickly and cleanly in order to avoid the poor combustion found in the Diesel.

To do this the fuel injectors are aimed to inject the fuel into only one area of the cylinder, often a small "subcylinder" at the top, or periphery, of the main cylinder. This provides a rich charge in that area that ignites easily and burns quickly and smoothly. As the combustion process proceedes it moves to a very lean area (often only air) where the flame-front cools rapidly and the harmful NOx has little opportunity to form. The additional oxygen in the lean charge also combines with any CO to form CO2, which is less harmful.

The much cleaner combustion allows for the elimination of the catalytic converter and allows the engine to be run at leaner mixtures, using less fuel.

After years of trying, this layout has proven not to be terribly easy to arrange. The system has been used for many years in slow-running industrial applications, but has generally failed to develop into an automobile engine. Many attempts have been made over the years, notably in Wankel engine applications, but only the Japanese car manufacturers have pressed ahead with piston-engine development. It is estimated that they have spent several hundreds of millions of dollars in R&D since the 1970s.

Honda's CVCC engine, released in the early 1970s models of Civic, then Accord and City later in the decade, is a form of stratified charge engine that had wide market acceptance for considerable time. The CVCC system had conventional inlet and exhaust valves and a third, supplementary, inlet valve that charged an area around the spark plug. The spark plug and CVCC inlet was isolated from the main cylinder by a perforated metal plate. At ignition a series of flame fronts shot into the very lean main charge, through the perforations, ensuring complete ignition. In the Honda City Turbo such engines produced a high power-to-weight ratio at engine speeds of 7,000 rpm and above.

Today, however, several stratified charge engines are appearing on the market. Mazda and Mitsubishi both have cars using these designs, Volvo Cars recently teamed with Mitsubishi to produce their designs in Europe, Audi has a car using the design and PSA Peugeot Citroën has developed such an engine. The primary "sales advantage" of these engines is fuel economy. They run at a leaner setting and use, about, 15 to 20% less fuel than non-stratified designs.

Volkswagen Lupo

The Volkswagen Lupo was a city car manufactured by German automaker Volkswagen from 1998 to 2005.

It was introduced in 1998 to fill a gap at the bottom of the VW model range caused by the increasing size and weight of the VW Polo. Rivals included the Ford Ka, the Opel Agila and the Fiat Panda. The SEAT Arosa was a badge-engineered version of the Lupo.

The car was available with a variety of engine sizes and trim levels, from budget models through to the GTI variant. The 6-speed Lupo GTI has been labelled a true successor to the VW Golf Mk.1, the first true hot hatch.

Various special-edition and test models have set records in fuel economy. The lightweight nature of the car and advanced 3-cylinder diesel engine have resulted in a production model (the Lupo 3L) that can consume as little as 3 litres per 100 kilometres (78 miles per US gallon or 94 miles per Imperial gallon). It was rumoured that it was this model that encouraged Renault to produced the Clio V6, since they assumed 3L stood for a 3-litre engine[citation needed].

Production of the Lupo ceased in 2005. It has been replaced by the VW Fox.

Awards

2001 Fleet News Award - Best Micro Car

1999 Auto Express New Car Honours - Best Small Car

1999 International Engine of the Year Award - Best Fuel Economy


Production
1998-2005

Successor
Volkswagen Fox

Class
City car

Engine
1.0 L I4 (Petrol)
1.4 L I4 (Petrol)
1.6 L I4 (Petrol)
1.2 L TDI PD I3 (Diesel)
1.7 L I4 (Diesel)

Three cylinder VW engines

3L 1.2 TDI

This inline three cylinder is renowned for being the powerplant of the Lupo 3L and A2 3L, both VAG cars with a low consumption of only three liters per hundred kilometers (94 mpg/78 US mpg). It is based on the 1.4 TDI version but the block is made of aluminium and the elements are lighter.

Configuration
Diesel 1191 cc inline three cylinder

Block
bore × stroke 76.5 × 86.4 mm, aluminum

Head
aluminum, 2 valves, overhead camshaft, 19.5 compression ratio

Aspiration
turbocharger

Fuel
Pump direct injection (PD Pump injector, Pumpe-Düse)

Dimensions
100 kg

Output
45 kW (61 hp) @ 4000 rpm, 140 N·m between 1800 and 2400 rpm, 80% available from 1300 rpm

Applications
Audi A2, VW Lupo 3L

references
Audi AG (1999-11-28). Audi A2 1.2 TDI: The three-litre car from Audi. Press release.



70-90 hp 1.4 TDI

Configuration
Diesel 1422 cc (86 in³) inline three cylinder

Block
bore * stroke 79.5 * 95.5, grey cast iron

Head
2 valves, overhead camshaft, 18 to 19.5 compression ratio

Aspiration
variable turbine geometry turbocharger, intercooler, 2.3 bar absolute boost

Fuel
Pump direct injection, (PD Pump injector, Pumpe-Düse) Bosch EDC 15 engine management

Exhaust
Oxidizing catalytic converter, exhaust gas recirculation, EU4 limits

Dimensions
127 kg

Output
51 kW (70 hp) @ 4000 rpm, 155 N·m between 1600 and 2800 rpm
55 kW (75 hp) @ 4000 rpm, 195 N·m (144 ft·lbf) @ 2200 rpm
59 kW (80 hp) @ 4000 rpm, 195 N·m @ 2200 rpm
66 kW (90 hp) @ 4000 rpm, 230 N·m from 1900 to 2300 rpm

Applications
Audi A2, VW Lupo, VW Polo, SEAT Arosa, SEAT Ibiza, SEAT Córdoba, Škoda Fabia , and most recently the Škoda Roomster

references
Audi AG (2003-11-10). New Audi A2 1.4 TDI with 90 bhp Engine. Press release.

2008 Chrysler Sebring Convertible in Detail

DaimlerChrysler AG's Chrysler Group division is expanding their product lineup of Chrysler Sebring models by adding up an all-new convertible variant. Chrysler Group boasts the numerous innovative technological features aboard the 2008 Chrysler Sebring Convertible, from the simplest up to the most sophisticated innovative systems.

George Murphy, Senior Vice President-Global Marketing, Chrysler Group sad:
"America's favorite convertible is now better than ever. The all-new Chrysler Sebring Convertible offers the unprecedented combination of unmistakable road presence, athletic handling, innovative technologies, as well as plenty of room for people and gear. In fact, the all-new Sebring Convertible is the only retractable hard top in the segment that can pass the two-golf-bag test. The sky's the limit on what this vehicle can accomplish in the marketplace."

Outside, the all-new 2008 Chrysler Sebring Convertible features a sporty and distinctive exterior styling highlighted by Chrysler's signature eggcrate grille, uniquely sculptured hood with elegant lines, large quad headlamps, wide tail lamps mounted on the corners and deck lid, rear fog lamps, and chrome tipped dual exhaust pipes.

According to a Chrysler Group official press release, some of the unique and innovative standard features found on the all-new 2008 Chrysler Sebring Convertible include a trunk spacious enough to hold two golf bags when the convertible top is down; power hard tonneau cover that neatly conceals each of the three convertible tops when retracted; seat belts integrated into the front and rear seats, which looks clean, enhances seat comfort and makes it easier for passengers to get into the back seat; a locking glove box that can secure important documents and small items; no manual convertible top latches, as Sebring's new convertible top system automatically latches; and YES Essentials stain-resistant, odor resistant, anti-static seat fabric.

In addition, the 2008 Chrysler Sebring Convertible also offers available innovative features like remote convertible top operation on the key fob, remote start that allows drivers to start and warm up or cool down their convertible from a distance, factory-installed windscreen that reduces wind and road noise, and a heated or cooled cup holder that keeps warm beverages warm and cold beverages cool.

For the U.S. market, Chrysler Group offers three power plants: the standard 2.4-liter World Engine, the available 2.7-liter V6 engine with Flexible Fuel Vehicle (FFV) capability, and the available 3.5-liter V-6 engine. These engines are combined with either a 4- or 6-speed automatic gearbox, and equipped with a thermostat similar to VW thermostat found on the VW Eos Convertible.

Engine balance

Engine balance is the design, construction and tuning of an engine to run smoothly. Engine balance reduces vibration and other stresses, and may improve the performance, efficiency, cost of ownership and reliability of the engine, as well as reducing the stress on other machinery and people near the engine.

These benefits are produced by:

* Reduced need for a heavy flywheel or similar devices.
* Reduced wear.
* The opportunity to reduce the size and weight of components (other than the obvious one of the flywheel) as a result of reduced stress and wear.
* Reduced vibration transmitted to the surroundings of the engine.
* The opportunity to extract more power from a given engine by:
o Higher maximum operating speeds made possible by reduced stress.
o Spreading loads equally over multiple components, for example if multiple carburetors are poorly balanced, the maximum available throttle will be reduced.

Even a single cylinder engine can be balanced in many aspects. Multiple cylinder engines offer far more opportunities for balancing, with each cylinder configuration offering its own advantages and disadvantages so far as balance is concerned.


Single cylinder engines

A single cylinder engine produces three main vibrations. In describing them we will assume that the cylinder is vertical.

Firstly, in an engine with no balancing counterweights, there would be an enormous vibration produced by the change in momentum of the piston, connecting rod and crankshaft once every revolution. Nearly all single-cylinder crankshafts incorporate balancing weights to reduce this.

While these weights can balance the crankshaft completely, they cannot completely balance the motion of the piston, for two reasons. The first reason is that the balancing weights have horizontal motion as well as vertical motion, so balancing the purely vertical motion of the piston by a crankshaft weight adds a horizontal vibration. The second reason is that, considering now the vertical motion only, the smaller piston end of the connecting rod is closer to the larger crankshaft end of the connecting rod in mid-stroke than it is at the top or bottom of the stroke, because of the connecting-rod's angle. The piston therefore travels faster in the top half of the cylinder than it does in the bottom half, while the motion of the crankshaft weights is sinusoidal. The vertical motion of the piston is therefore not quite the same as that of the balancing weight, so they can't be made to cancel out completely.

Secondly, there is a vibration produced by the change in speed and therefore kinetic energy of the piston. The crankshaft will tend to slow down as the piston speeds up and absorbs energy, and to speed up again as the piston gives up energy in slowing down at the top and bottom of the stroke. This vibration has twice the frequency of the first vibration, and absorbing it is one function of the flywheel.

Thirdly, there is a vibration produced by the fact that the engine is only producing power during the power stroke. In a four-stroke engine this vibration will have half the frequency of the first vibration, as the cylinder fires once every two revolutions. In a two-stroke engine, it will have the same frequency as the first vibration. This vibration is also absorbed by the flywheel.


Two cylinder engines

Even a two cylinder engine has three common configurations:

* Straight-twin.
* V-twin.
* Boxer twin.

Each of the three has advantages and disadvantages so far as balance is concerned.

A straight twin engine may have a simple single-throw crankshaft, with both pistons at top dead centre simultaneously. For a four-stroke engine, this gives the best possible firing sequence, with one cylinder firing per revolution, equally spaced. But it also gives the worst possible mechanical balance, no better than a single cylinder engine. Many straight twin engines therefore have an offset angle crankshaft, that is, two throws at an angle of up to 180°, with the result that the pistons reach top dead centre at different times. This produces better mechanical balance, but at the cost of uneven firing.

The first vibration noted above for the single cylinder is minimised for a crank offset angle of 180°, but balance is still far from perfect. There is still a rocking moment produced by the displacement of the cylinders one from the other, and there is still the second vibration noted for the single cylinder owing to the kinetic energy of motion of the pistons. This second vibration is minimised by a crank offset of 90°. See external links below for a detailed analysis of the effect of different crankshaft offset angles.

A "true" V-twin, like all true V engines, has only one crank throw for each pair of cylinders, so the crankshaft is a simple one like that of a single cylinder engine, and unlike any other V engine no crankshaft offset is possible. However there is still the question of the angle of the V. An angle of 90° gives a very good mechanical balance, but the firing is uneven. Smaller angles give poorer mechanical balance, but more even firing for a four-stroke (but, even less even firing for a two-stroke). Many classic V-twin motorcycles use narrow V angles as a compromise. See external links for a detailed analysis of the 90° V twin mechanical balance.

Other engines with two cylinders in a V configuration have a small offset between the cylinders in order to allow two separate crank pins, set at whatever angle the engine designer may specify in similar fashion to a straight twin. Although the characteristics of such engines are similar to those of a straight twin rather than a V, they are almost always called V engines. These engines include the Suzuki VX800 and Honda Transalp, which although called V-twins have a two-pin crankshaft, and an offset angle between the two crank throws.

The boxer engine is a type of flat engine in which each of a pair of opposing cylinders is on a separate crank throw, offset at 180° to its partner, so both cylinders of the pair reach top dead centre together. Any boxer therefore is inherently balanced so far as the momentum of the pistons is concerned, except that corresponding cylinders cannot exactly line up owing to the crankshaft design, and this produces a rocking motion. The four-stroke boxer twin has an even firing pattern, but the worst possible balance so far as the kinetic energy goes, as both pistons accelerate and deccelerate together. See external links for a detailed analysis of the boxer twin mechanical balance.


More than two cylinders

The number of possible configurations with more than two cylinders is enormous. See articles on individual configurations listed in Category:Piston engine configurations for detailed discussions of particular configurations.

There are four different forces and moments of vibration that can occur in an engine design: free forces of the first order, free forces of the second order, free moments of the first order, and free moments of the second order. The straight-6, flat-6, and V12 designs have none of these forces or moments of vibration, and hence are the naturally smoothest engine designs. (See the Bosch Automotive Handbook, Sixth Edition, pages 459-463 for details.)

Engines with particular balance advantages include:

* Straight-6
* Flat-6
* Flat-12
* V12

Engines with characteristic problems include:

* Flat-4 boxer and straight-4 have no better kinetic energy balance than a single, and require a relatively large flywheel.

* Crossplane V8, which requires a very heavily weighted crankshaft, and has unbalanced firing between the cylinder banks (producing the distinctive and much-loved V8 "burble").

* Flatplane (180° offset crankshaft) V8.

In modern multi-cylinder engines, many inherent balance problems are addressed by use of balance shafts.


Component balancing

In order to achieve the inherent balance of any engine configuration, the balancing masses must be matched. In most engines, some individual components are matched as a set. Exactly which components are matched is part of the design of the engine.

For example, pistons are often matched, and must be replaced as a set to preserve the engine balance. Less commonly, a piston may be matched to its connecting rod, the two being machined as an assembly to tighter tolerances than either alone.

Component balancing is not restricted to considerations of mechanical balance. It is vital, for example, that the compression ratio and valve timing of each cylinder should be closely matched, for optimum balance and performance. Many components affect this balance.


Carburetor balance

In engines with multiple carburetors, balancing the carburetors is a vital part of engine tuning. Imbalance will not only mean that the carburetors are operating at less than ideal, but will also unbalance the cylinders that they serve.

Advantages and Disadnvantages of biofuel

Biofuel is derived from biomass — recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. It is a renewable energy source, unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal, and nuclear fuels. Here are some advantages and disadvantages of this new fuel:

Advantages

- Renewable - vegetable oil derived

- Dramatically reduced emissions

- Carbon Neutral

- Biodegradable

- Non-toxic

- Less noxious - fuel & exhaust emmisions

- Used directly in unmodified diesel engine

- Biodegradable

- Higher Lubricity - can prolong engine life

- High flashpoint - safer to store & transport

- Simple to make

- Used neat or blended in any ratio with petroleum diesel


Disadvantages

* Availability - very few outlets & manufacturers. Fuel giants have not explored / invested in emerging biofuel technology such as algal oil / biologically produced fuels
* Poorly made biodiesel of low quality can cause engine problems
* Producing biodiesel without proper equipment and safety precautions can be dangerous



Green fuel

* Renewable - Biodiesel is derived from vegetable oil which is essentially grown - a sustainable resource that will not run out. Petroleum diesel is derived from crude oil, which is finite and will eventually run out.

* Carbon Neutral - Biodiesel use does not lead to any overall change in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. The vegetables from which the oil has been extracted remove CO2 from the atmosphere to grow. When biodiesel is burned the CO2 is released back into atmosphere.

* Less noxious, non-toxic - Biodiesel lacks the unpleasant odour of petroleum diesel and exhaust emissions smell like a barbecue! Users can expect a near 100% reduction in Sulphur dioxide (SO2), 40-60% reduction in soot & particulates, 10-50% reduction in Carbon monoxide, and a reduction in all Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAHs - Phenanthren -97%, Benzofluoroanthen -56%, Benzapyren -71%, Aldehydes & Aromatics -13%.

* Unlike petroleum diesel, it is biodegradable.



Other advantages

* Simple to make, and can be produced from waste vegetable oil.
* Classed as non-hazardous because it is non-toxic and has a high flash-point.
* Burns more efficiently than petroleum diesel.
* Substantially higher lubricity means it can reduce engine wear and hence prolong engine life.

Saving fuel cost the easy way

With rising gas prices and environmental issues taking center stage, it’s no wonder that many people are looking into more fuel efficient cars. But what if you can’t afford a new hybrid, or you need the extra room that your SUV gives you? The good news is there are many ways to make whatever car you own more fuel-efficient, saving you gas money and helping to reduce emissions at the same time.

Try reduce vehicle weight, do an inspection and remove anything that doesn't do any importants to the car, don't want the car to be a drag. The ligther the car the less fuel it needs to get moving.

Check tyre pressure, make sure its not to soft or to hard(check car manual for tyre pressure)

Keeping your car running well and servicing it when needed will also help keep your vehicle running smoothly and efficiently. A car that has to work harder because of parts that need to be cleaned or replaced will hurt your fuel economy. Parts to check often are: air filters, spark plugs, PVC valve, fuel injector, oxygen sensor and fuel filter. These are some of the most common parts that can affect your car’s fuel efficiency, especially if you have a high performance vehicle or SUV.

Making an effort to take care of your vehicle and utilizing these easy steps will not only help save you money at the gas pump, you will be helping the environment as well. Now that you know how easy it is you can get started today!

Internal Combustion Engine Volumetric efficiency

Volumetric efficiency in internal combustion engine design refers to the efficiency with which the engine can move the charge into and out of the cylinders. More correctly, volumetric efficiency is a ratio (or percentage) of what volume of fuel and air actually enters the cylinder during induction to the actual capacity of the cylinder under static conditions. Therefore, those engines that can create higher induction manifold pressures - above ambient - will have efficiencies greater than 100%. Volumetric efficiencies can be improved in a number of ways, but most notably the size of the valve openings compared to the volume of the cylinder and streamlining the ports. Engines with higher volumetric efficiency will generally be able to run at higher RPM, and thus power, settings as they will lose less power to moving air in and out of the engine.

There are several standard ways to improve volumetric efficiency. A common approach for manufacturers is to use a larger number of valves, see multi-valve, which cover a greater area of the cylinder head. Carefully streamlining the ports increases flow capability. This is referred to as Porting and is done with the aid of an air flow bench for testing. Today, automobile engines typically have four valves per cylinder for this reason. Many high performance cars in the 1970s used carefully arranged air intakes and "tuned" exhaust systems to "push" air into and out of the cylinders through the intrinsic resonance of the system. Two-stroke engines take this concept even further with expansion chambers that returns the escaping air-fuel mixture back to the cylinder. A more modern technique, variable valve timing, attempts to address changes in volumetric efficiency with changes in RPM of the engine -- at higher RPM the engine needs the valves open for a greater percentage of the cycle time to move the charge in and out of the engine.

More "radical" solutions include the sleeve valve design, in which the valves are replaced outright with a rotating sleeve around the piston, or alternately a rotating sleeve under the cylinder head. In this system the ports can be as large as necessary, up to that of the entire cylinder wall. However there is a practical upper limit due to the strength of the sleeve, at larger sizes the pressure inside the cylinder can "pop" the sleeve if the port is too large.

Few fact about car insurance

Appropriate Insurance Coverage is important
Generally the half of insurance covers the liability factor that depends on how you are going to use the vehicle. The amount you pay decreases in case for ex. If you are commuting for home to office and vice versa for work and also if your driving record is clean without a speeding ticket. If your driving record is not clean you end up paying more money as insurance premium. The second half of insurance premium covers damage or loss to your vehicle along with comprehensive and collision coverage.

Shopping around pays
Shop for insurance ad always get more than none quote. There are in fact hundred of companies competing for insurance business from you and in many cases you can save hundred of dollars because of multiple quotes. So, shop around for quotes.

Find out insurance discounts
Many companies in general offer discounts to the customers. You can avail the discount if you are buying more than one insurance policy viz. auto and home insurance. You can also get discounts on factors like air bags, anti-lock brakes, daytime running lights and anti-theft devices.

Consider higher deductibles
You could lower your insurance bill by increasing your deductible but before that just make sure you can pay the higher deductible if you file a claim.

Stacking coverage’s while you file Insurance claim
Stacking uninsured or underinsured motorist coverage’s means you can collect from more than one of your auto insurance policies. Most states prohibit this practice, but there are about 19 states that either allow stacking or don't address the issue either through legislation or litigation. Be sure to check your auto insurance contract to see if it's allowed. Probably you are likely pay a higher insurance premium if you have stacked coverage.

Car gives you benefits
Insurers depend on the model of car you buy, its sticker price, features which may reduce maintenance or accidents or theft. So consult your insurer while you finalize which car to buy.

Notify Insurer of Change
If you wish to terminate the insurance coverage notify the insurer of the same. In many states you get penalty for the number of days you go uninsured so notify your company the change in writing or through phone, terminate the insurance and change the company after that.

Go with your budget
It is always recommended that you strictly follow your budget and choose the payment which fits into your budget. You can get monthly, quarterly, half yearly or yearly mode of payments and choose which suits your pocket.

vegetable oil for fuel history

The first known use of vegetable oil as fuel for a diesel engine was a demonstration of an engine built by the Otto company and designed to burn mineral oil, which was run off of pure peanut oil at the 1900 World's Fair. When Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine, he designed it to run on peanut oil but it was soon discovered that it would operate on cheaper petroleum oil. In a 1912 presentation to the British Institute of Mechanical Engineers, he cited a number of efforts in this area and remarked, "The fact that fat oils from vegetable sources can be used may seem insignificant today, but such oils may perhaps become in course of time of the same importance as some natural mineral oils and the tar products are now."

Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 30s and 40s, and again in the 70s and early 80s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their automobiles, Elsbett of Germany. In the 1990s Bougainville conflict, islanders cut off from oil supplies due to a blockade used coconut oil to fuel their vehicles.

Academic research into straight vegetable oil fell off sharply in the 80s with falling petroleum prices and greater interest in biodiesel as an option that did not require extensive vehicle modifications.

BMW N52 engine

The BMW N52 is the BMW's latest straight-6 engine, which debuted in 2004 on the BMW E63 630Ci. Its crankcase is made entirely of magnesium-aluminum, a first in the world of engine construction. It is the lightest production engine of its size class in the world, at 161kg/354lbs.

It includes BMW's second generation Valvetronic system and Double-VANOS for fuel-efficiency (12% fuel savings over the previous generation BMW M54 engine - and increases performance. Producing 63kW (85.5hp) per liter of displacement, it has the lowest weight per horsepower of any six cylinder engine (1.24hp per kilogram with the latest version). It is the world’s lightest six-cylinder engine.

It was awarded as one of Ward's 10 Best Engines of the Year in 2006 and 2007. Technologically it is even more advanced than the new N54B30 bi-turbo, which is based on an older M54B30 design and lacks several improvements that BMW has made for this engine.

All BMWs are available with this engine in at least one version - the only exception being the X5 which still uses the predecessor, M54B30 as its 3.0 Liter gasoline engine option.

The N52 is BMW's 12th generation production straight-6 engine.


Models

Engine
N52B25

Displacement
2.5 L (2497 ccm/152 in³)

Power
130 kW (174 hp) @ 5800
160 kW (215 hp) @ 6500

Torque
230 N·m (170 ft·lbf) @ 3500-5000
250 N·m (184 ft·lbf) @ 2750-425

Redline
7000rpm

Year
2005



Engine
N52B30

Displacement
3.0 L (2996 ccm/182 in³)

Power
190 kW (255 hp) @ 6600
195 kW (265 hp) @ 6600
200 kW (272 hp) @ 6650

Torque
300 N·m (221 ft·lbf) @ 2500-4000
315 N·m (232 ft·lbf) @ 2750-4250
315 N·m (232 ft·lbf) @ 2750-4250

Redline
7000rpm

Year
2004
2005
2006



N52B25

The N52B25 comes in two versions, both displacing 2.5 L (2497 ccm/152 in³). The first produces 130 kW (174 hp) at 5800 rpm and 230 N·m (170 ft·lbf) at 3500-5000 rpm while the more powerful version is rated at 160 kW (215 hp) at 6500 rpm and 250 N·m (184 ft·lbf) at 2750-4250 rpm.

Applications:

* 130 kW (174 hp) and 230 N·m (170 ft·lbf)
o E60/E61 523i (Not in the US market) Sedan and Touring
o E90 323i (US market only) Sedan
* 160 kW (215 hp) and 250 N·m (184 ft·lbf)
o E60/E61 525i/525xi Sedan and Touring
o E90/E91/E92/E93 325i/325xi Sedan, Touring, Coupè and Convertible
o E83 X3 2.5si (Not in the US market) Sports Activity Vehicle
o E85 Z4 2.5si (Not in the US market) Roadster


N52B30

The N52B30 comes in three versions, all displacing 3.0 L (2996 ccm/182 in³) and produces variable outputs depending on the BMW model that it comes with (with changes to the variable resonance system-omitted, dual plenum runner system-also omitted and variable back pressure muffler-omitted) 190 kW (255 hp) at 6600 and 300 N·m (221 ft·lbf) at 2500-4000 rpm is the first and most produced version, while the second one is more powerful at 195 kW (265 hp) at 6600 and 315 N·m (232 ft·lbf) at 2750-4250 rpm. The third version is just starting to replace the first 190kW versions on the E90/E60 in Late 2006 and has first been released on the new E92 330i Coupè. It will produce 200 kW (272 hp) at 6650 and 315 N·m (232 ft·lbf) at 2750-4250 rpm.

Applications:

* 190 kW (255 hp) and 300 N·m (221 ft·lbf)
o E60/E61 530i/530xi Sedan and Touring (*)
o E63/E64 630i (Not in the US market) Luxury Coupè and Convertible
o E65/E66 730i/730Li (Not in the US market) Luxury Sedan
o E90/E91 325i, 328i, 330i Sedan, Touring (*)

The models marked with a star (*) will soon receive the 200kW version upgrade - sometime in late 2006.

* 195 kW (265 hp) and 315 N·m (232 ft·lbf)
o E85/E86 Z4 3.0i and 3.0si Roadster and Coupè
o E87 130i (Not in the US market) Hatchback
* 200 kW (272 hp) and 315 N·m (232 ft·lbf)
o E92/E93 328i/328xi Coupè, 4WD Coupè and the upcoming Hardtop Convertible
o E83 X3 3.0si Sports Activity Vehicle

Dieseling...Curing The After Running.

AFTER one, or both, of two things, causes RUN OR DIESELING: too hot and too fast. Something's hot, too hot, inside a combustion chamber(s) causing it to ignite by itself. Usually it's because of too lean a condition, sometimes at idle. Try richening the idle mixture screws (counter clockwise) a tad and setting the timing to specs. Also lower the idle speed a little. Having the throttle closed more helps it kill easier.

It could also be just the opposite, too rich a mixture has caused carbon build up in the chambers, and a hot piece of carbon in a combustion chamber is the ignition source. In that case, lean it out, lower the idle a tad, and put a can of good carbon cleaner in the gas tank, such as GM's Carbon-X, or Chevron's Techron. Even though the can of "stuff" says you can pour it down the carburetor, it's better to let it burn off slowly. Even if your neighbor says to pour water down the carb, don't. Cold water (or chemicals) makes valve stems look like pretzels, and the steam washes the oil off the rings, not a good thing to do. And then there's always the possibility of causing a chuck of carbon breaking off and getting stuck where it does lots of damage.

Next fill gas tank with premium fuel, use name brand gas, not independents where you don't know what you're getting. Don't use gasohol or gasoline with high alcohol content.

If after doing the above, it's still a problem, add an idle solenoid. It's powered by ignition electrics. When you shut off the ignition, the throttle closes more, killing it. Lots of Jeepsters had them but since people didn't understand how they work they tossed them.

To adjust the solenoid, disconnect the wire to it, adjust for the slowest idle possible, but do not let the throttle plates close all the way (this prevents them from wearing the ventures.) Connect the wire; adjust the position of the solenoid or the plunger for best curb idle with the plunger extended. If you no longer have the solenoid or bracket, visit a junkyard. Lots of 60's and 70's cars used them; likely donors are GM's.

Sometimes a dieseling condition actually makes the engine run backwards a moment, pumping oil OUT of things, not good. I've seen where people walked away from their cars letting it "run on." When they got back it had melted internal parts.

What causes dieseling

The most common cause of that is the failure of the anti dieseling mechanism, sometimes an "anti dieseling solenoid", found on most late model carbureted cars. What is happening is that the throttle is remaining partially open when the engine is shut down, which gives the hot engine sufficient fuel to run without a spark from the spark plugs. Most hot engines have sufficient carbon build-up that remains glowing red hot and acts as an igniter for the fuel. The solution is to make sure that the throttle closes completely when you turn off the ignition switch. Check the throttle stop and make sure that the fast idle on the choke or the "bottom stop" isn't what is stopping the throttle from closing. It must be the anti-dieseling mechanism and that mechanism must be functional.

Some motors (Olds for example in 85) used an actual servo motor for this function. The motor drives a worm gear which advances or retracts the idle speed control rod depending on what the computer tells it to do. When it is in the "closed throttle" position and the key is killed it retracts completely to allow the throttle plate to close completely thus preventing the "dieseling" that so many cars are experiencing.

Valvetronic system

The Valvetronic system is the first variable valve timing system to offer continuously variable timing (on both intake and exhaust camshafts) along with continuously variable intake valve lift, from ~0 to 10 mm, on the intake camshaft only. Valvetronic-equipped engines are unique in that they rely on the amount of valve lift to throttle the engine rather than a butterfly valve in the intake tract. In other words, in normal driving, the "gas pedal" controls the Valvetronic hardware rather than the throttle plate.

First introduced by BMW on the 316ti compact in 2001, Valvetronic has since been added to many of BMW's engines. The Valvetronic system is coupled with BMW's proven double-VANOS, to further enhance both power and efficiency across the engine speed range. Valvetronic will not be coupled to BMW's N53, "High Precision Injection" (gasoline direct injection) technology due to lack of room in the cylinder head, or the N54B30 bi-turbo engine. Cylinder heads with Valvetronic use an extra set of rocker arms, called intermediate arms (lift scaler), positioned between the valve stem and the camshaft. These intermediate arms are able to pivot on a central point, by means of an extra, electronicly actuated camshaft. This movement alone, without any movement of the intake camshaft, can open or close the intake valves.

Because the intake valves now have the ability to move from fully closed to fully open positions, and everywhere in between, the primary means of engine load control is transferred from the throttle plate to the intake valvetrain. By eliminating the throttle plate's "bottleneck" in the intake track, pumping losses are reduced, fuel economy and responsiveness are improved.

It is important to note however, that the throttle plate is not removed, but rather defaults to a fully open position once the engine is running. The throttle will partially close when the engine is first started, to create the initial vacuum needed for certain engine functions, such as emissions control. Once the engine reaches operating speed, a vacuum pump run off the passenger side exhaust camshaft (on the N62 V8 only) provides a vacuum source, much as a diesel engine would, and the throttle plate once again goes to the fully open position.

The throttle plate also doubles as an emergency backup, should the Valvetronic system fail. In this case, the engine would enter a "limp home" program, and engine speed would once again be controlled by the throttle plate.

Valvetronic has so far been limited to BMW's mass-market engines, with no high-performance M-series car using the technology. The Valvetronic hardware adds a great deal of mass to the valvetrain, limiting maximum engine speeds (~7,000 rpm peak rpm in N52) engines and making it unsuitable for the high-revving M engines.

Inside Bruce Crower’s Six-Stroke Engine

Bruce Crower has lived, breathed and built hot engines his whole life. Now he’s working on a cool one—one that harnesses normally-wasted heat energy by creating steam inside the combustion chamber, and using it to boost the engine’s power output and also to control its temperature.

“I’ve been trying to think how to capture radiator losses for over 30 years,” explains the veteran camshaft grinder and race engine builder. “One morning about 18 months ago I woke up, like from a dream, and I knew immediately that I had the answer.”

Hurrying to his comprehensively-equipped home workshop in the rural hills outside San Diego, he began drawing and machining parts, and installing them in a highly modified, single-cylinder industrial powerplant, a 12-hp diesel he converted to use gasoline. He bolted that to a test frame, poured equal amounts of fuel and water into twin tanks, and pulled the starter-rope.

“My first reaction was, ‘Gulp! It runs!’” the 75-year-old inventor remembers. “And then this ‘snow’ started falling on me. I thought, ‘What hath God wrought…’”

The “snow” was flakes of white paint blasted from the ceiling by the powerful pulses of exhaust gas and steam emitted from the open exhaust stack, which pointed straight up.

Over the following year Crower undertook a methodical development program, in particular trying out numerous variations in camshaft profiles and timing as he narrowed the operating parameters of his patented six-stroke cycle.

Recently he’s been trying variations of the double-lobe exhaust cams to delay and even eliminate the opening of the exhaust valve after the first power stroke, to “recompress” the combustion gasses and thus increase the force of the steam-stroke.

The engine has yet to operate against a load on a dyno, but his testing to date encourages Crower to expect that once he gets hard numbers, the engine will show normal levels of power on substantially less fuel, and without overheating.

“It’ll run for an hour and you can literally put your hand on it. It’s warm, yeah, but it’s not scorching hot. Any conventional engine running without a water jacket or fins, you couldn’t do that.”

Indeed, the test unit has no external cooling system—no water jacket, no water pump, no radiator; nothing. It does retain fins because it came with them, but Crower indicates the engine would be more efficient if he took the trouble to grind them off. He has discarded the original cooling fan.

So far he has used only gasoline, but Bruce believes a diesel-fueled test engine he is now constructing—with a hand-made billet head incorporating the one-third-speed camshaft—will realize the true potential of his concept.

Potential…and Questions
Crower invites us to imagine a car or truck (he speaks of a Bonneville streamliner, too) free of a radiator and its associated air ducting, fan, plumbing, coolant weight, etc.

“Especially an 18-wheeler, they’ve got that massive radiator that weighs 800, 1000 pounds. Not necessary,” he asserts. “In those big trucks, they look at payload as their bread and butter. If you get 1000 lb. or more off the truck…”

Offsetting that, of course, would be the need to carry large quantities of water, and water is heavier than gasoline or diesel oil. Preliminary estimates suggest a Crower cycle engine will use roughly as many gallons of water as fuel.

And Crower feels the water should be distilled, to prevent deposits inside the system, so a supply infrastructure will have to be created. (He uses rainwater in his testing.) Keeping the water from freezing will be another challenge.

But the inventor sees overriding benefits. “Can you imagine how much fuel goes into radiator losses every day in America? A good spark-ignition engine is about 24 percent efficient; ie., about 24 cents of your gasoline dollar ends up in power. The rest goes out in heat loss through the exhaust or radiator, and in driving the water pump and the fan and other friction losses.

“A good diesel is about 30 percent efficient, a good turbo diesel about 33 percent. But you still have radiators and heavy components, and fan losses are extremely high on a big diesel truck.”

Bottom-line, Bruce estimates his new operating cycle could improve a typical engine’s fuel consumption by 40 percent. He also anticipates that exhaust emissions may be greatly reduced. It’s all thanks to the steam.

“A lot of people don’t know that water expands 1600 times when it goes from liquid into steam. Sixteen hundred! This is why steam power is so good. But it’s dangerous…”

The danger of a boiler explosion has long been a factor in engineering—and in operating—steam powerplants of all kinds, and Crower is properly wary of the miniature boiler he has conjured up inside his test engine. That’s one reason he chose to use one originally manufactured as a diesel, for its inherent strength, though he installed a carburetor and ignition system so it could burn gasoline at first.

The original diesel fuel injector system now supplies the water spray to generate the steam-stroke.

In addition to producing extra power, the injected water cools the piston and exhaust valve, which suggests to Crower that he could raise the compression ratio. “I’ve done this many times on regular engines: 15-to-1 on gasoline for the first five seconds works pretty good until you get some chamber heat and then suddenly it gets into pinging. But with the chamber being chilled, I bet 12-, 13-to-1 will be no problem on cheap fuel.

“So what we can maybe do is have fuels that aren’t quite as good…It’ll save a nickel a gallon not having to keep three grades going.”

As for his hope of lowering emissions, Bruce speculates the steam might purge “cling-on hydrocarbons” out of the combustion chamber. “This thing may turn out to be so clean that you won’t have to have a catalytic converter.

But he admits that’s unknown, saying “there’s a lot of experimenting still to be done.” Which prospect makes him smile. He thrives on this kind of challenge.
Bruce’s Background
“You’ve kinda got to be in the cam business and know the dynamics of engines,” Bruce Crower says about how the idea occurred to him. And he certainly has that background.

He was building and racing hot rods (and hot bikes), manufacturing speed equipment and operating his own speed shop in his home town of Phoenix when he was still a teen.

After moving to San Diego in the 1950s, among other exploits he dropped a Hemi into a Hudson and drove it to a 157-mph speed record at Bonneville.

Inevitably, the inventive and inexhaustible Crower built up a major equipment business in superchargers, intake manifolds, clutches and, especially, camshafts. He’s also credited with first suggesting a rear wing to Don Garlits—in 1963, three years before Jim Hall’s winged Chaparral. Bruce Crower is now in Florida’s Drag Racing Hall of Fame.

Crower actually had introduced a wing two years earlier, during practice on Jim Rathmann's 1961 Indianapolis car—five years before Jim Hall’s winged Chaparral. Bruce had been crewing at the Speedway since 1954 (Jimmy Bryan, second place), and had been part of Rathmann's 1960 victory effort. He was likewise on the winning teams in 1966 (Graham Hill) and 1967 (AJ Foyt). Three decades later, in 1998, Eddie Cheever won with Crower cams.

Bruce even produced his own complete Indy engine, a flat-8 that didn’t quite make the field in 1977 and then was rendered obsolete (due to its width) by the advent of ground-effect tunnels. But the Crower 8 and its automatic clutch did win an SAE award for innovation.

Today, Crower Cams and Equipment Company employs about 160 people in five facilities, and manufactures not only cams but crankshafts and connecting rods—including titanium rods for (unnamed) Formula One customers.

Bruce Crower can’t be called retired now, but he’s happy to let the company he founded “roll along” while he “plays with cars.” That’s how he looks at the intensive R&D work he carries out in the privacy of his 13-acre horse property near the rural community of Jamul.

One of several projects is building up Honda S2000 engines for the Midget raced by his granddaughter, Ashley Swanson. (“I think she’s on par with Danica Patrick,” says the proud grampa.)

But his prime focus is proving his six-stroke engine is as revolutionary as he believes it is. “I’ve been trying to find something wrong with the whole basic idea for almost a year,” he says, “but I think we’re going to have a very marketable item.”

Then he adds philosophically, “If it turns out to be great, fine. If it doesn’t, it’s just another year out of my life that I’ve had a lot of fun doing something.”

Crower six stroke engine

The Crower six-stroke engine is a concept under development by Bruce Crower, known for the invention and manufacture of many devices now used in automotive acceleration racing (see National Hot Rod Association and drag racing).

Two extra strokes are added to the customary internal combustion engine four stroke Otto cycle. A fifth down-stroke is a "steam stroke" and the sixth is to exhaust the expanded steam while venting heat from the engine.

The engine cold starts on the Otto cycle, coasting through the fifth and sixth strokes for a short period. After the combustion chamber temperature reaches approximately 400 degrees Fahrenheit ( 200oC ), a mechanical operation phases in the fifth and sixth cycles. Just prior to the fifth-cycle, water is injected directly into the heated combustion chamber via the converted diesel engines fuel injector pump, creating steam and another power stroke. The phase change from liquid to steam removes the excess heat of the combustion stroke forcing the piston down (a second power stroke). As a substantial portion of engine heat now leaves the cylinder in the form of steam, no cooling system radiator is required. Energy that is dissipated in conventional arrangements by the radiation cooling system has been converted into additional power strokes.


Positive aspects:

Crower claims a 40% reduction in fuel consumption and reduced exhaust emissions.

The base engine for modification uses a high compression ratio which is essential for compression ignition. This high ratio is useful in extracting the full potential of ethanol (one of many fuels that this engine may use). These high ratios are a dramatic alteration over present multi-fuel engines which typically use a 10:1 compression ratio, similar to gasoline engines.

The cooler piston top and reduced combustion chamber temperature (heat is extracted in the conversion of injected water to steam) may allow gasoline to be used at very high compression ratios or without environmentally harmful anti-knock chemicals, which are now in universal use with conventional automobile gasoline engine applications. Under these circumstances, far more energy from the gasoline fuel could be converted to horsepower output. (Very high compression ratios are used in racing engines as a means to increase power.)

The weight of most conventional cooling system parts can be eliminated.

The power loss to operate fans and pumps is eliminated.

The mechanical modifications needed to "six-stroke" a small air-cooled industrial diesel already being manufactured are far less complicated than any hybrid system. Many maintenance features of this engine would be parallel or identical to the knowledge base of mechanics well-versed with gasoline, diesel, and racing engines.

The modification to water injection could be done simultaneous to the use of all liquid and gaseous fuels now in widespread use (diesel, gasoline, ethanol, methanol, LP gas, natural gas as well as all plant-derived oils) in the conventional four-stroke portion of the engine.

Physical engine size reduction is possible as one-third of the engine strokes produce power (in the Crower six-stroke), instead of one-quarter (in the Otto cycle).

The higher percentage of power strokes may allow lower operational speeds, with higher torque output at lower and broader rpm ranges. Lower operational speed might allow designs with greater crankshaft diameter, for the use of engine dimensions with inherently more torque potential.

This system is ideal for heavy industrial applications and electric utility peaking plants where "dirty" internal combustion plants are commonly used for stand-by generation.

This is the only "steam engine" that does not require a certified pressure boiler and related hardware complexities, dangers, and weight penalties.


Obstacles or problems:

A warm up period of at least several minutes would be required in all automotive applications. Power is reduced during the warm-up period.

A steam-free cool down period is required to clear water/steam from the engine.

Cold climate anti-freezing electrical resistance heating systems would be required in the mobile water supply.

Water is more dense than all motor fuels.

Oil adulteration, from the water/steam cycle, is an obstacle to be dealt with, though additional piston/cylinder sealing rings can be added easily.

The weight of an oil separator and a water condenser are likely additions.

Current anti-air pollution legislation does not allow for experimental use status on public roadways.

Tips on saving fuel

In todays high oil prices, one must learn to use it more wisely. heres some tips on how:

* Take advantage of rolling resistance rather than heavy braking to help slow you down. This deceleration technique is one of the best for fuel saving.

* Avoid unnecessary braking.

* Maintain a steady speed.

* Drive in gear corresponding to the speed.

* A poorly tuned engine can increase fuel consumption by up to 50%

* Driving at 90 kilometers an hour rather than 100 can reduce fuel consumption by 10%

* Under inflated tires can increase fuel consumption by 5%

* A loaded roof rack will increase fuel consumption by as much as 5% in highway driving.

* Even an empty roof rack can increase consumption by 1%. If the carrier is not attached to the vehicle, remove it when not in use.

* Avoid "Jack Rabbit" starts, not only do they increase fuel consumption, but are hard on your tires. Anticipating stops and avoiding abrupt stops will decrease fuel consumption and increase the life of your brakes and tires.

* Avoid unnecessary steering wheel movement since each sideward movement of the tire causes fuel-consuming drag.

* Accelerate slowly on gravel or slippery roads.

* Reviving the engine just before turning off the ignition costs extra fuel and may cause engine damage.

* Avoid using the air conditioner at lower speeds.

* Changing spark plugs regularly can save a lot.

* neutral the gear at red light stops.

* Do not use the clutch too much.

* Get your vehicle serviced regularly.

What to do when engine problem

First try and detect the problem, is the car not starting, running roughly, conking out, or using too much petrol?

when the problem is found, isolate the system most likely to be its cause. If it is conking out, the fuel system may be at fault. If it is not starting, the electrical system may be worth looking at first. If the car is overheating, check the cooling system.

After you have isolated the most likely system, locate the weakest link in that system. The fuel pump, for example, is often the most vulnerable part of the fuel system.

Check each successive part in the system until the problem is solved.

Get the broken part replaced or repaired. Consult your car's manual for other specific problems you might be facing. This will help to speed up diagnosis, or you could send your car to the mechanics

Improving engine performance tips

Increase displacement
- More displacement means more power because you can burn more gas during each revolution of the Car engine. You can increase displacement by making the cylinders bigger or by adding more cylinders. 12 cylinders seems to be the practical limit.

Increase the compression ratio
- Higher compression ratios produce more power, up to a point. The more you compress the air/fuel mixture, however, the more likely it is to spontaneously burst into flame (prior to the spark plug igniting it). Higher octane gasolines prevent this sort of early combustion. That is why high-performance cars generally need high octane gasoline - their engines are using higher compression ratios to get more power.

Stuff more into each cylinder
- If you can cram more air (and therefore fuel) into a cylinder of a given size, you can get more power from the cylinder (in the same way that you would by increasing the size of the cylinder). Turbo chargers and super chargers pressurize the incoming air to effectively cram more air into a cylinder.

Cool the incoming air
- Compressing air raises its temperature. You would like to have the coolest air possible in the cylinder because the hotter the air is the less it will expand when combustion takes place. Therefore many turbo charged and super charged cars have an intercooler. An intercooler is a special radiator through which the compressed air passes to cool it off before it enters the cylinder.

Let air come in more easily
- As a piston moves down in the intake stroke, air resistance can rob power from the car engine. Air resistance can be lessened dramatically by putting two intake valves in each cylinder. Some newer cars are also using polished intake manifolds to eliminate air resistance there. Bigger air filters can also improve air flow.

Let exhaust exit more easily
- If air resistance makes it hard for exhaust to exit a cylinder, it robs the engine of power. Air resistance can be lessened by adding a second exhaust valve to each cylinder (a car with 2 intake and 2 exhaust values has 4 valves per cylinder, which improves performance - when you hear a car ad tell you the car has 4 cylinders and 16 valves, what the ad is saying is that the engine has four valves per cylinder). If the exhaust pipe is too small or the muffler has a lot of air resistance then this can cause back-pressure which has the same effect. High-performance exhaust systems use headers, big tail pipes and free-flowing mufflers to eliminate back-pressure in the exhaust system. When you hear that a car has "Dual Exhaust", the goal is to improve the flow of exhaust by having two exhaust pipes instead of one.

Make everything lighter
- Lightweight parts help the car engine perform better. Each time a piston changes direction it uses up energy to stop the travel in one direction and start it in another. The lighter the piston, the less energy it takes.

Inject the fuel
- Fuel injection allows very precise metering of fuel to each cylinder. This improves performance and fuel economy.

Automobile Electric starter

The modern starter motor is a series-wound direct current electric motor with a solenoid switch (similar to a relay) mounted on it. When low-current power from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch, it pushes out the drive pinion on the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the ring gear on the flywheel of the engine. The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor and it starts to run. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. The starter's pinion is clutched to its driveshaft through an overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive in only one direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to release the key as soon as the engine starts), the pinion will spin independently of its driveshaft. This prevents the engine driving the starter, for such backdrive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to fly apart.

This overrunning-clutch pinion arrangement was phased into use beginning in the early 1960s; prior to that time, a Bendix drive was used. The Bendix system places the starter drive pinion on a helically-cut driveshaft. When the starter motor begins turning, the inertia of the drive pinion assembly causes it to ride forward on the helix and thus engage with the ring gear. When the engine starts, backdrive from the ring gear causes the drive pinion to exceed the rotative speed of the starter, at which point the drive pinion is forced back down the helical shaft and thus out of mesh with the ring gear. An intermediate development between the Bendix drive developed in the 1930s and the overrunning-clutch designs introduced in the 1960s was the Bendix Folo-Thru drive. The standard Bendix drive would disengage from the ring gear as soon as the engine fired, even if it did not actually start to run. The Folo-Thru drive contains a latching mechanism and a set of flyweights in the body of the drive unit. When the starter motor begins turning and the drive unit is forced forward on the helical shaft by inertia, it is latched into the engaged position. Once the drive unit is spun at a speed higher than that attained by the starter motor itself (i.e., it is backdriven by the running engine) will the flyweights pull radially outward, releasing the latch and permitting the overdriven drive unit to be spun out of engagement. In this manner, unwanted starter disengagement is avoided prior to a successful engine start.

Chrysler contributed materially to the modern development of the starter motor. In 1962, Chrysler introduced a starter incorporating a geartrain between the motor and the driveshaft. The motor shaft had integrally-cut gear teeth forming a drive gear which meshed with a larger adjacent driven gear to provide a gear reduction ratio of 3.75:1. This permitted the use of a higher-speed, lower-current, more compact motor while increasing cranking torque. Variants of this starter design was used on most vehicles produced by Chrysler Corporation from 1962 through 1987. Light aircraft engines also made extensive use of this starter, because its light weight offered an advantage. This starter formed the design basis for the offset gear reduction starters now employed by about half the vehicles on the road, and the conceptual basis for virtually all of them; those starters not employing offset geartrains like the Chrysler unit generally employ planetary epicyclic geartrains instead. Direct-drive starters are almost entirely obsolete due to their larger size, heavier weight and higher current requirements.

Ford also issued a nonstandard starter, a direct-drive "movable pole shoe" design that provided cost reduction rather than electrical or mechanical benefits. This type of starter eliminated the solenoid, replacing it with a moveable pole shoe and a separate starter relay. The Ford starter operated as follows:

1. The operator closed the key-operated starting switch.

2. A small electric current flowed through the starter relay coil, closing the contacts and sending a large current to the starter motor assembly.

3. One of the pole shoes, hinged at the front, linked to the starter drive, and spring-loaded away from its normal operating position, swung into position. This moved a pinion gear to engage the flywheel ring gear, and simultaneously closed a pair of heavy-duty contacts supplying current to the starter motor winding.

4. The starter motor cranked the engine until it started. An overrunning clutch in the pinion gear uncoupled the gear from the ring gear.

5. The operator released the key-operated starting switch, cutting power to the starter motor assembly.

6. A spring retracted the pole shoe, and with it, the pinion gear.

This starter was used on Ford vehicles from 1975 through 1990, when a gear-reduction unit conceptually similar to the Chrysler unit replaced it.


Pneumatic starter

Some gas turbine engines and Diesel engines, particularly on trucks, use a pneumatic self-starter. The system consists of a geared turbine, an air compressor and a pressure tank. Compressed air released from the tank is used to spin the turbine, and through a set of reduction gears, engages the ring gear on the flywheel, much like an electric starter would. The engine, once running, powers the compressor to recharge the tank.

Another method, for large diesel engines, uses additional valves in cylinder heads. Compressed air is let in the cylinders so that its pressure pushes pistons down when appropriate; at the upward piston movement, air is discharged through normal exhaust valves.

Since large trucks typically use air brakes, the system does double duty, supplying compressed air to the brake system. Pneumatic starters have the advantages of delivering high torque, mechanical simplicity and reliability. They eliminate the need for oversized, heavy storage batteries in prime mover electrical systems.


Auxiliary starter engine

A large, high power Diesel engine, such as those used in off-road heavy equipment, may have a small gasoline-powered engine attached to the side as a starter.

These were also sometimes called pony engines. On some applications, they shared the same cooling system and oil supply. As the pony engine warmed up, it circulated warm coolant and warm oil in the diesel engine. In addition to making it easier to crank, it improved the service life.

Understanding TheToyota Hybrid Synergy Drive

Hybrid Synergy Drive, (HSD) is a set of hybrid car technologies developed by Toyota and used in that company's Prius, Highlander Hybrid, Camry Hybrid, Lexus RX 400h, Lexus GS 450h, and Lexus LS600h/LS600hL automobiles. It combines the characteristics of an electric drive and a continuously variable transmission, using electricity and transistors in place of toothed gears. The Synergy Drive is a drive-by-wire system with no direct mechanical connection between the engine and the engine controls: both the gas pedal and the gearshift lever in an HSD car merely send electrical signals to a control computer.

HSD is a refinement of the original Toyota Hybrid System (THS) used in the 1997–2003 Toyota Prius. As such it is occasionally referred to as THS II. The name was changed in anticipation of its use in vehicles outside the Toyota brand (Lexus; the HSD systems used in Lexus vehicles have since been termed Lexus Hybrid Drive since 2006).

When required to classify the transmission type of an HSD vehicle (such as in standard specification lists or for regulatory purposes), Toyota describes HSD-equipped vehicles as having E-CVT (Electronically-controlled Continuously Variable Transmission).

General Motors and DaimlerChrysler's Global Hybrid Cooperation is similar in that it combines the power from a single engine and two motors. In contrast, Honda's Integrated Motor Assist uses a more traditional ICE and transmission where the flywheel is replaced with an electric motor.

Some early non-production Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle conversions have been based on the version of HSD found in the 2004 and 2005 model year Prius. Early Pba conversions by CalCars have demonstrated 10 miles of ev-only and 20 miles of double mileage mixed-mode range. A company planning to offer conversions to consumers named EDrive systems will be using Valence Li-ion batteries and have 35 miles of electric range. Both of these systems leave the existing HSD system mostly unchanged and could be similarly applied to other hybrid powertrain flavors by simply replacing the stock NiMH batteries with a higher capacity battery pack and of course a charger to refill them for about $0.03 per mile from standard household outlets. Another provider of a plug-in module for the Toyota Prius is Hymotion.


Theory of operation

HSD replaces a normal geared transmission with an electronic system. All car powertrains drive a driveshaft that turns the drive wheels of the car. Because an internal combustion engine delivers energy best only over a small range of torque and speed, the crankshaft of the engine is usually attached to a switchable gear train that matches the needed torque at the wheels to the torque that can be delivered by the engine.

HSD replaces the gear box, alternator and starter motor with a pair of electrical motor-generators, a computerized shunt system to control them, a mechanical power splitter that acts as a second differential, and a battery pack that serves as an energy reservoir. A motor-generator is a transducer that converts electricity to motion or vice-versa. The mechanical connections of the system allow the computer to convert mechanical power from the engine between three forms: extra torque at the wheels (under constant rotation speed), extra rotation speed at the wheels (under constant torque), and electricity. This achieves the benefits of a continuously variable transmission, except that the torque/speed conversion uses electricity rather than direct mechanical connection. An HSD car cannot operate without the computer and both motor-generators, though in principle it could operate while missing the gasoline engine. In practice, HSD cars can be driven a mile or two without gasoline, as an emergency measure to reach a gas station.

One of the motor-generators (MG2 in Toyota manuals; sometimes called "MG-T" for "Torque") is mounted on the driveshaft, and thus couples torque into or out of the driveshaft: feeding electricity into MG2 adds torque at the wheels. The engine end of the driveshaft has a second differential; one leg of this differential is attached to the gasoline engine and the other leg is attached to a second motor generator (MG1 in Toyota manuals; sometimes "MG-S" for "Speed"). The differential relates the rotation speed of the wheels to the rotation speeds of the engine and MG1, with MG1 used to absorb the difference between wheel and engine speed. The differential is an epicyclic gearset (also called a "power split device"); that and the two motor-generators are all contained in a single housing that is bolted to the engine. Special couplings and sensors monitor rotation speed of each shaft and the total torque on the driveshaft, for feedback to the control computer.

The drive works by shunting electrical power between the two motor generators and the battery pack to even out load on the gasoline engine. Because a power boost is available for periods of acceleration, the gasoline engine can be sized to match only the average load on the car, rather than the peak load on the car: this saves fuel because smaller engines are more power efficient. Furthermore, during normal operation the gasoline engine can be operated at its ideal speed and torque level for power, economy, or emissions, with the battery pack absorbing or supplying power as appropriate to balance the demand placed by the driver.


Phases of operation

The HSD operates in distinct phases depending on speed and demanded torque. Here are a few of them:

* Engine start: To start the engine, MG1 is fed negative voltage, so that it acts as a starter motor. The engine is forced into forward motion. Because both motor generators are sized to drive the entire car, turning the engine does not stress the motors and the conventional starter motor sound is not heard: engine start is silent. Engine start can occur when the car is stopped or moving.

* Low gear (equivalent): When accelerating at low speeds in normal operation, the engine turns much more rapidly than the wheels, but does not develop as much torque as is needed. MG1 is forced rapidly backwards, and the computer pulls electricity from MG1. The electricity is shunted to MG2, adding torque at the driveshaft, so that the drive train develops power at low speed and high torque.

* High gear (equivalent): When cruising at high speed, the engine turns more slowly than the wheels, but develops more torque than is needed. The computer pulls electricity from MG2, reducing the torque available at the wheels. The electricity is shunted to MG1, which boosts the speed of the driveshaft. Because the engine supplies mechanical energy to the whole system, conservation of energy is not violated: the power that is shunted from MG2 to MG1 is less than the total power developed by the engine, and so power is delivered to the wheels.

* Reverse gear: There is no reverse gear as in a conventional gearbox: the computer feeds negative voltage to MG2, applying negative torque to the wheels. Early models did not supply enough torque for some situations: there have been reports of early Prius owners not being able to back the car up steep hills in San Francisco. The problem has been fixed in recent models. If the battery is low, the system can simultaneously run the engine and draw power from MG1, although this will reduce available reverse torque at the wheels.

* Silent operation: At slow speeds and moderate torques the HSD can drive without running the gasoline engine at all: electricity is supplied only to MG2, allowing MG1 to rotate freely (and thus decoupling the engine from the wheels). This is popularly known as "Stealth Mode." Provided that there is enough battery power, the car can be driven in this silent mode for some miles even without gasoline.

* Neutral gear: Most jurisdictions require automotive transmissions to have a neutral gear that decouples the engine and transmission. The HSD "neutral gear" is achieved by breaking the electrical connection to both MG1 and MG2. Under this condition, MG1 is free running and no torque can be delivered to the wheels (MG1 rotates backwards when the engine rotates forward).

* Regenerative braking: by drawing power from MG2 and depositing it into the battery pack, the HSD can simulate normal compression braking while saving the power for future boost. The HSD system has a special transmission setting labelled 'B' (for Brake), that takes the place of a conventional automatic transmission's 'L' setting for engine braking on hills. If the battery is full, the system switches to conventional compression braking, drawing power from MG2 and shunting it to MG1, speeding the engine with throttle closed and so slowing the vehicle. The regenerative brakes in a HSD system absorb a significant amount of the normal braking load, so the conventional brakes on HSD vehicles are undersized compared to brakes on a conventional car of similar mass.

* Electric boost: The battery pack provides a reservoir of energy that allows the computer to match the demand on the engine to a predetermined optimal load curve, rather than operating at the torque and speed demanded by the driver and road. The computer manages the energy level stored in the battery, so as to have capacity to absorb extra energy where needed or supply extra energy to boost engine power.

* Battery charging: The HSD can charge its battery without moving the car, by running the engine and extracting electrical power from MG1. The power gets shunted into the battery, and no torque is supplied to the wheels.


Performance

The Toyota Prius has decent, but not sport-car-like, acceleration but has extremely high mileage for a mid sized four-door sedan: 45 mpg (US) is typical of brief city jaunts; 55 mpg is not uncommon, especially for extended drives (which allow the engine to warm up fully). This is about twice the fuel efficiency of a similarly equipped four-door sedan with a conventional power train. Not all of the extra efficiency of the Prius is due to the HSD system: the Atkinson cycle engine itself was also designed specifically to minimize engine drag with an offset crankshaft to minimize piston drag during the power stroke, and a unique intake system to prevent drag caused by manifold vacuum versus the normal Otto cycle in most engines.

The Highlander Hybrid (also sold as the Kluger in some countries) offers better performance compared to its non-hybrid version. The hybrid version goes from 0–60 mph in 7.2 seconds, trimming almost a second off the conventional version's time. Net hp is 268 hp compared with to the conventional 215 hp. Top speed for all Highlanders are limited to 112 mph. Typical fuel economy for the Highlander rates between 27 and 31 mpg. A conventional Highlander is rated by the EPA with 19 city, 25 highway mpg.

Ford Motor Company licensed HSD technology in 2004 and it is currently offered in an SUV, the Ford Escape, though a hybrid Ford Fusion will be released in the future. The four-cylinder hybrid Escape achieves an impressive increase in mileage, to 28–32 mpg.

There have been reports in the press of hybrid power trains not living up to fuel efficiency claims. This is due in part to the sensitivity of hybrid mileage to driving style. The mileage boost depends on using the gasoline engine as efficiently as possible, which requires:

* extended drives, especially in winter: Heating the internal cabin for the passengers runs counter to the design of the HSD. The HSD is designed to generate as little waste heat as possible. In a conventional car, this waste heat in winter is usually used to heat the internal cabin. In the Prius, running the heater will the require the engine to continue running to generate cabin-usable heat. This effect is most pronounced by turning the climate control (heater) off when at a stop when the engine is running. Normally the HSD control system will shut the engine off as it is not needed, and will not start it again until the generator reaches a maximum speed.

* moderate acceleration: Because hybrid cars can throttle back or completely shut off the engine during moderate, but not rapid, acceleration, they are more sensitive than conventional cars to driving style. Hard acceleration forces the engine into a high-power state while moderate acceleration keeps the engine in a lower power, high efficiency state (augmented by battery boost).

* gradual braking: Regenerative brakes re-use the energy of braking, but cannot absorb energy as fast as conventional brakes. Gradual braking recovers energy for re-use, boosting mileage; hard braking wastes the energy as heat, just as for a conventional car

Most HSD systems have batteries that are sized for maximal boost during a single acceleration from zero to the top speed of the vehicle; if there is more demand, the battery can be completely exhausted, so that this extra torque boost is not available. Then the system reverts to just the power available from the engine. This is a big difference in performance: an early-model Prius can achieve over 90 mph on a 6 degree upward slope, but after about 2,000 feet of altitude climb the battery is exhausted and the car can only achieve 55–60 mph on the same slope (until the battery is recharged by driving under less demanding circumstances).

Ford F250 Superduty 2008

The F-250 Super Duty Crew Cab FX4 is a four-wheel-drive workhorse. It hauls manure as opposed to producing it in word-processing machines. That is an important distinction in assessing its value and place in a political environment marked by concerns about fuel efficiency and global warming. On Capitol Hill, honorable lawmakers and their staffs, many of whom have never hauled anything except lobbyists' reports, or built anything except political constituencies, are apt to look at the big Ford truck and say: "Aha, see! That is why we need higher fuel economy standards."

Complaints:
It has a ground clearance of nearly eight inches, presenting ingress-egress difficulties for short people. An optional swing-out step is available.
Ride, acceleration and handling: It's a big pickup truck that rides and handles like a big pickup truck--hard and sometimes bouncy. Handling is good in straight-line highway running, competent in wide curves, less pleasing in tight curves, and ponderous to clumsy in city traffic. It is a truck designed to push, haul and tow, which is why it has lots of torque, especially at lower engine revolutions per minute. That means it's no speedster.
Head-turning quotient: It drew smiles and praise in West Virginia. It brought curses and sneers in Washington and its suburbs.

Body style/layouts:
Ford's Super Duty trucks are full-size, body-on-frame pickups available with rear-wheel-drive or all-wheel-drive. There are three cab styles--regular (two side doors), Super Cab (two full front side doors and two half doors for rear-cabin access), and the tested Crew Cab (four full side doors). There are two bed lengths--6.75 feet and eight feet. And there are three towing-hauling ranges--F-250, heavy; F-350, heavier; F-450, heaviest.

Engines/transmissions:
Three engines are available for the F-250, including Ford's base 5.4-liter, 300-horsepower, gasoline Triton V-8; a 6.8-liter, 362-horsepower, gasoline Triton V-10; and the tested 6.4-liter, Power Stroke diesel V-8 that develops 350 horsepower at 3,000 rpm and 650 foot-pounds of torque at 2,000 rpm. In the tested vehicle, the diesel engine was linked to a five-speed automatic transmission. A six-speed manual is available.
Capacities: With bench seats front and rear, there is seating for six. Maximum payload is 3,170 pounds. Maximum towing capacity is 12,500 pounds. The fuel tank holds 38 gallons of required ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel. Warning: Carefully read diesel pump labels before filling.

Mileage:
I averaged 22.5 miles per gallon in highway driving with one passenger, no cargo.
Safety: Four-wheel antilock brakes are standard. Side and head air bags were not available at this writing. Electronic traction control is available. Ford's Trailer Brake Controller, which synchronizes braking between the truck and trailer, is optional on the F-250 and is recommended by this column.

Price:
Base price is $35,880. Dealer's invoice price on the base model is $33,152. Price as tested is $54,825, including $18,010 in options (diesel engine, five-speed automatic transmission, navigation, Trailer Brake Controller, power sunroof, leather-covered captain's chairs, tailgate step, Sirius Satellite Radio) and a $925 destination charge. Dealer's price as tested is $49,027. Prices sourced from Ford and www.edmunds.com.

Purse-strings note:
Easy on the options. Regular cab versions are substantially less expensive. Rear-wheel drive beats four-wheel-drive in fuel economy.

Toyota Yaris 2007

2007 Toyota Yaris 3-door liftback

Base price:
$11,530

Powertrain:
1.5-liter, DOHC four-cylinder with variable valve timing; five-speed

transmission;
front-wheel drive

Horsepower:
106 at 6,000 rpm

Torque:
103 pound-feet at 4,200 rpm

Curb weight:
2,290 pounds

0-60 mph:
10 seconds

Wheelbase:
96.9 inches

Overall length:
150.6 inches

EPA fuel economy:
34 miles per gallon city, 40 mpg highway

Final thoughts:
A giant stubs its toe

Toyota Yaris, a surprisingly routine and summarily undelightful B-class subcompact that feels as mailed-in as if it had a stamp on it.

Cheap? Oh yes, to a fault. The $11,530 MSRP (with delivery) can't make room for things like a radio/CD/MP3, anti-lock brakes, rear-window wiper or rear fogger, or split-folding rear seat. Our test car had another $3,210 of options: alloy wheels, power windows and doors, four-speaker audio with CD/MP3 player, ABS, front side-air bags, side curtain air bags. But up against other recent B-class urban runabouts -- the Honda Fit, the Nissan Versa -- the Yaris is less car for more money. And tinny. Compared with the sealed and muffled character of the Honda Fit, this thing's got more ring-a-ding than Frank Sinatra at Caesars Palace.

handling, it has some. Actually, for a little car, the Yaris has some pretty acute body roll and lean. It reminds me of the old Jackie Stewart exercise in which he put a ball in a bowl affixed to the hood of a car to demonstrate the effects of smooth driving. Except in this case, the Yaris is the ball.

It's not all bad. The build quality is excellent. The interior (with plastic fixtures inspired by a Super Soaker) is modern and easy to use. The upholstery is nice. That's all I've got.

The irony is, of course, that Toyota made its bones in the U.S. market making cheap, superlative compacts. But the Yaris, after the Echo, suggests the company is losing its common touch.

Renix

Renix is an Engine Control Unit (ECU - also known as Electronic Control Unit) computer system in the AMC 4.0 liter straight 6 engines that was developed by Renault and Bendix. Production began by American Motors (AMC) with the 1987 Jeep Cherokee (XJ) models. It was preceded by the AMC Computerized Engine Control, and followed by the Mopar MPI system.

The Renix ECU has a powerful microprocessor and it was very advanced for its time. It also incorporates an engine knocking sensor that allows the computer to know if detonation is occurring, thus allowing the computer to make adaptive control by individual cylinder corrections to prevent pinging. The knock detection uses the signal from a wide bank accelerometer mounted on the cylinder head. Good signal to noise ratio is obtained primarily through angular discrimination.

The Renix computer was used through the 1990 model year. Unfortunately, the Renix system is now handicapped because there are few scan tools that can be "plugged in" to this computer for diagnosis.


History

* 1987 - the new Renix controlled 4.0 L engine was rated at 173 hp (129 kW) and 220 lb-ft (298 N·m) of torque.

* 1988 - output increased to 177 hp (132 kW) and 224 lb-ft (304 N·m) of torque, due to higher flowing fuel injectors.

* 1991 - Chrysler Corporation (then the owners of the Jeep brand) redesigned and renamed the RENIX ECU.


Other RENIX applications

* Volvo 700 series - B200K 2.0L inline-4, naturally aspirated with Renix ignition

* Renault engines

Piston Top dead centre

Top dead centre (TDC) in a piston engine, is the position of a piston in which it is furthest from the crankshaft. The position closest to the crankshaft is known as bottom dead centre (BDC).

Top dead centre is the datum point from which engine timing measurements are made. For example, ignition system timing is normally specified as degrees before top dead centre (BTDC) although a very few small and fast-burning engines, require a spark just after top dead centre (ATDC), such as the Nissan MA engine with hemispherical combustion chambers, or hydrogen engines.

Top dead centre for cylinder one is often marked on the crankshaft pulley, the flywheel or dynamic balancer or both, with adjacent timing marks showing the recommended ignition timing settings as decided during engine development. These timing marks can be used to set the ignition timing either statically by hand or dynamically using a timing light, by rotating the distributor in its seat.

In a multi-cylinder engine, pistons may reach top dead centre simultaneously or at different times depending on the engine configuration. For example:

* In the V-twin configuration, the two pistons reach TDC at different times, equal to the angular displacement between the cylinders.

* In the boxer twin configuration, two opposing pistons reach TDC simultaneously, which is also called 0° displacement.

* In the straight-4 configuration, the two end pistons (pistons 1 and 4) reach TDC simultaneously, as do the two centre pistons (pistons 2 and 3), but these two pairs reach TDC with an angular displacement of 180°. Similar patterns are found in almost all straight engines with even numbers of cylinders, with the two end pistons and two middle pistons moving together (not necessarily 180° out of phase however) and the intermediate pistons moving in pairs in mirror-image around the centre of the engine.

* In the flatplane V8 and many larger V engines, the piston motion within each bank is similar to that of a straight engine, however in the crossplane V8 and all V10 engines the motion is far more complex.

The concept of top dead centre is also extended to pistonless rotary engines, and means the point in the cycle in which the volume of a combustion chamber is smallest. This typically occurs several times per rotor revolution; In the Wankel engine for example it occurs three times for every one revolution of the rotor.

This term is also used in the realm of production equipment. A mechanical punch press employs a crankshaft similar to that found in an engine. In the punch press the crankshaft drives a ram which when it is farthest away from the platen of the press is considered to be in the position of top dead center.